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PRx^CTICAL    FLORA 


FOR  SCHOOLS  AXD  COLLEGES 


OLIVER   R.'WILLIS,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

INSTHUCTOR   IN    BOTANY,    PHYSICS,    AND   CHEMISTRY    IN    THE 
NEW   YORK    MILITARY    ACADEMY 


NEW   YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN     BOOR     CO.A[PANY 


WM-] 


\\1V 


Copyright,  189^, 
By   American  Book  Company. 


Willis's  Pract.  Flora. 


l)rintc&  bie 

TRIlm.   -flviBon 

'new  ItJorft,  in*  S.  B. 


PEEFACE. 


BOTANIES  without  number  have  been  published,  giving 
scientific  descriptions  of  plants  of  such  character  that 
the  student  is  enabled  by  careful  analysis  of  their  structure 
and  appearance  to  determine  their  names  and  physical 
characteristics.  Such  books  are  excellent  in  their  way,  and 
the  information  they  contain  is  necessary  for  all  students  of 
the  science  ;  but  all  our  pupils  who  take  up  this  study  as 
part  of  their  curriculum  have  not  the  scientific  mind  which 
makes  the  acquirement  of  the  science  an  end  in  itself.  To 
engage  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  such  students,  it  is 
necessary  to  show  the  practical  aspects  of  the  vegetable 
world,  and  its  relations  to  the  needs  of  every-day  life ;  to 
reveal  something  of  its  history,  which,  in  itself,  becomes  a 
fascinating  study ;  and  to  show  enough  of  its  economic 
features  to  satisfy  those  who  have  neither  the  scientific 
mind  nor  the  poetic  temperament  required  for  a  love  of  the 
study  for  itself. 

There  has  been  a  long-felt  want  for  a  work  of  such  prac- 
tical character,  and  this  book  has  been  prepared  to  meet 
the  demand.  It  does  not  aim  to  be  exhaustive,  as  such 
a  treatment  would  make  a  book  of  many  thousands  of 
pages,  which  it  would  be  impracticable  to  place  in  the 
hands  of  a  pupil ;  but  the  author  has  made  a  careful  se- 
lection of  the  most  important  food-producing  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbs,  including  ornamental  plants,  fruits,  nuts,  medi- 
cinal plants,  and  those  which  furnish  oils,  dyes,  lumber, 
textile  fabrics,  etc.  ^^  , 

^  .  /» i  m      m,^      ^^OPUtTV  OF 

71^/  *»ftC0lUB£llB8A8y. 


iv  PREFACE. 

So  far  as  the  scientific  description  and  classification  of 
these  plants  are  concerned,  the  plan  of  this  book  does  not 
differ  from  that  adopted  by  the  best  botanists.  The  various 
genera  are  grouped  together  under  their  respective  orders, 
and  the  species  and  varieties  under  their  genera  in  the  same 
way  as  in  other  books.  Each  order  has  a  general  statement 
which  characterizes  all  the  plants  belonging  to  it,  and  each 
genus  and  species  and  variety  a  more  specific  description  of 
such  other  characteristics  as  determine  its  classification. 
But  in  addition  to  this,  and  to  supplement  it,  are  introduced 
the  features  in  which  this  book  differs  from  those  hereto- 
fore published.  Thus,  after  the  technical  description  of  a 
plant  will  be  found  an  account  of  its  geographical  range, 
the  origin  of  its  name,  its  history,  including  a  statement  of 
its  birthplace  and  distribution  over  the  globe,  its  uses,  modes 
of  cultivation,  preparation,  and  propagation,  and  many  sta- 
tistics of  economical  and  commercial  interest. 

The  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  successful  class-room 
experience,  and  the  author  recommends  it  to  the  notice  of 
teachers  and  pupils,  in  the  hope  that  they  may  find  in  it 
both  interest  and  profit,  and  that  it  may  tend  to  relieve 
the  monotony  of  a  strictly  technical  treatment  of  the 
subject,  and  enhance,  if  possible,  the  beauty  and  the  use- 
fulness of  the  study  of  Botany. 


CONTENTS. 


Paob 
Introduction ix 

Brief  Statement  of  the  Subject  and  its  Subdivisions     .  xv 

Authors'  Names  and  Abbreviations 3 

Key  to  the  Orders 5 

Synopsis  of  Orders  and  Genera 12 


Ranunculace^ 

Anemone 
Anemonella 
Ranunculus 
Thalictrum 
Caltha .     . 
Clematis   . 

Berberidace^ 

Berberis    . 

Podophyllum 
Papaverace^ 

Papaver    . 
Crucifer^  . 

Capsella   . 

Brassiea    . 

Coehlearia 

Isatis    .     . 

Nasturtium 

CAPPARIDACEiE 

Capparis  . 

ViOLACEiE       . 

Viola    .     . 

BlXINE^   .       . 

Bixa 


Page 
30-42 
30 
33 
33 
39 
39 
40 


42 

-43 

42 

• 

42 

43 

-46 

43 

46 

-54 

. 

46 

46 

52 

53 

. 

53 

54 

-56 

54 

56 

-62 

56 

<i3 

-64 

63 

Ternstr(emiace^ 


Page 

64-67 
64 


Malvace^  .     .     .     . 

.      67-70 

Gossypium 

67 

Sterculiace.e     .     . 

70-72 

Theobroma  .      .     . 

.      .        70 

Tiliace^    .... 

.       72-74 

Corehorus    . 

.      .        73 

LiNACEiE       .... 

74-77 

Linum      .... 

74 

Erythroxylon     .     . 

.      .        76 

Zygophyllace.e  .     . 

.       77-78 

Guaiacum 

77 

Rutace^    .... 

.       78-83 

Citrus            .      .     . 

78 

•Meliace^  .... 

.       83-85 

Swietenia      .     .     . 

.      .        83 

iLICINEiE        .... 

.       85-87 

Tlex     ..... 

.     .        85 

Rhamnace^e    .     .     . 

87-88 

Rhamnus 

.      .        87 

Ceanothus     .      .     . 

.      .        88 

VI 


CONTENTS. 


Ampelide^     .     . 

Vitis  .... 
Sapindace^    . 

Acer  .... 
Anacardiace^    . 

Rhus  .... 

Anacardium 
Leguminos^    .     . 

Indigofera    . 

Astragalus    . 

Arachis  .     .     . 

Lens  .... 


Page 

88-91 
.        88 

91-93 
91 

93-95 
93 
95 

96-112 
96 
97 
99 

.      100 


Pisum 101 

Phaseolus 103 

Glycyrrhiza       .     .     .      .  105 

Haematoxylon   .     .      .      .  105 

Cassia 107 

Ceratonia 108 

Dalbergia 108 

Caesalpinia 109 

Tamarindus      .     .     .     .  109 

Acacia Ill 

Rosacea 113-127 

Rubus 113 

Fragaria 116 

Prunus 117 

Pyrus   .....  123 

SAXIFRAGACEiE      .       .       .    128-131 

Ribes 128 

COMBRETACE^        .       .       .   131-132 

Terminalia 131 

Myrtace^       ....  132-137 

Myrtus 133 

Eugenia 134 

Bertholletia       .     .     .  137 

Lythrace^     ....  138-139 

Punica 138 

CuCURBITACEiE      .       .       .    139-146 

Cucumis 139 

Citrullus 142 

Cucurbita 143 


Paoe 

UMBELLIFERiE         .       .       .    146-156 

Apium 146 

Pimpinella 147 

Foeniculum 148 

Ferula 149 

Peucedanum      .     .     .     .  151 

Coriandrura       .     .     .     .  152 

Cuminum 153 

Daucus 154 

Carum 155 

RuBiACE^ 157-164 

Cinchona 157 

Cofeea 160 

Cephaelis 162 

Rubia 163 

Composite 165-170 

Inula 165 

Anthemis 166 

Chrysanthemum     .     .      .     167 

Tanacetum 168 

Carthamus 169 

CaMPANULACEvE  .  .  .  170-171 
Lobelia 170 

Vacciniace^  ....  171-174 
Gaylussacia  .  .  .  .  171 
Oxycoccus 172 

Sapotace^  ....  174-176 
Dichopsis 174 

Ebexace^ 176-177 

Diospyros 176 

Oleace^ 178-180 

Olea 178 

LoGANIACEiE     ....   180-182 

Strvchnos 180 


BORRAGINACE^      .       . 

.  182-183 

Symphytum 

.     .      182 

CONVOLVULACE.*: 

.  183-185 

Ipomoea  .     . 

.     .      183 

CONTENTS. 


Vll 


SOLANACEiG        .       . 

Lycopersicum  . 
Nicotiaiia     . 
Atropa    .     .     . 
Capsicum     .     . 
Solanum 


.85 


Pedaline^ 

Sesamum 

Verbenace^ 
Tectona  . 


195- 


19; 


Paob 

-195 
185 
187 
191 
192 
194 

-197 
195 

-198 
197 


Labiat.i:     . 
Lavandula 
Mentha   . 
Origanum 
Thymus  . 
Salvia 
Rosmarinus 
Nepeta    . 
Marrubium 


198- 


208- 


Chexopodiace^  . 
Beta  .... 
Spinacia 

POLYGONACEiE 

Fagopyrum 
Rheum     . 

Piperace^  .  . 
Piper       .     .     . 

Myristicace^ 

Myristica 

Laurace^ 217 

Cinnamomum    .... 

Santalace^   ....  220 
Santalum 

EUPHORBIACE.E      .       .       .    222 

Euphorbia 

Hevea 

Buxus     

Croton 

Manihot 

Ricinus 


210- 


213- 


215- 


207 
198 
199 
201 
203 
204 
205 
206 
207 

210 
208 
209 

213 
211 
212 

-215 
214 

•217 
215 

■220 
217 

-222 

220 

-229 
222 
223 
225 
226 
227 
228 


Page 
Urticace^      ....  230-238 

Morus 230 

Ulmus 231 

Humulus 233 

Ficus 234 

Cannabis 236 

JUGLANDACE^        .       .       .   238-242 

Juglans 238 

Hicoria 238 

CUPULIFERiE     ....  242-256 

Castanea 243 

Quercus 245 

Corylus 254 

Fagus 255 

Salicace^ 256-258 

SaUx 256 

Orchidace.e    ....  258-260 
Vanilla 259 

ZlNGIBERACE^       .       .       .   260-268 

Curcuma 260 

Maranta 261 

Elettaria 263 

Zingiber 264 

Musa 265 

Bromeliace^       .     .     .  268-270 
Ananassa 269 

Iridace^ 270-271 

Crocus 270 

DiOSCOREACEiE      .      .      .  271-272 
Dioscorea 271 

LiLiACE^i-: 272-278 

Smilax 273 

Asparagus 274 

Phormiura 276 

Aloe 277 

Palm^ 278-285 

Areca 279 

Phoenix 280 

Cocos 282 

Metroxvlon       ....     283 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Gramine^ 285-300 

Zea 286 

Triticum 288 

Oryza 290 

Saccharum 292 

Sorghum '  294 

Secale 295 

Hordeum 296 

Avena 298 

Setaria 300 


Page 
CONIFERiE 300-315 

Pinus 300 

Picea 307 

Abies 308 

Larix 309 

Jiiniperus     .     .     .     .     .  310 

Thuja 312 

Tsuga 312 

ChaniEecyparis        .     .     .  314 


Glossary 317 

Index 339 


INTEODUCTION. 


DURING  the  last  century  the  means  of  acquiring  knowl- 
edge in  every  department  of  science  has  been  wonder- 
fully increased  and  facilitated.  In  the  several  departments  of 
Natural  History  the  improvement  has  been  striking.  Natural- 
ists no  longer  study  any  branch  as  a  whole,  but  divide  it  into 
parts,  each  of  which  affords  employment  for  a  lifetime.  Thus, 
in  Zoology,  one  naturalist  devotes  himself  to  Quadrupeds, 
another  to  Bu-ds,  a  thud  to  Fishes,  and  a  fourth  to  Insects. 

It  is  less  than  a  hundred  years  since  Botany  was  allowed  a 
place  as  a  branch  of  Natural  History ;  nevertheless  it  has  not 
only  become  a  favorite  study,  but  is  now  a  very  important 
branch  of  science.  The  field  has  so  enlarged  itself  that  it  has 
been  found  convenient,  as  in  other  sciences,  to  break  it  up  into 
several  departments. 

The  number  of  species  of  plants  was  supposed  by  Linnaeus 
not  to  exceed  ten  thousand,  while  at  the  present  day  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  are  known ;  and  new  species,  and 
even  new  genera,  are  yearly  increasing  the  names  already  in 
the  vast  catalogue. 

The  constant  expansion  of  this  broad  field  is  a  source  of  the 
highest  gratification  to  the  student  of  Natural  History.  He 
need  entertain  no  fears  that  his  insatiable  curiosity  will  ever 
lack  food ;  a  long  life  given  to  the  study  of  Botany  in  any  one 
of  its  departments,  with  the  most  zealous  and  enthusiastic 
devotion,  will  leave  it  still  unfinished.  No  branch  of  science 
affords  such  unalloyed  pleasure  in  its  pvn'suit. 

He  who  sees  no  beauty  in  the  expanding  Rose  or  tiie  Tulip's 
variegated  petals  is,  indeed,  an  object  of  pity.     Even  a  common 


X  mXRODUCTION. 

observer  is  struck  with  such  prominent  examples  of  Nature's 
beauties,  and  feels  what  the  poet  felt  when  he  wrote  :  — 

"  But  who  can  paiut 
Like  Nature  ?     Can  imaginatiou  boast, 
Amid  its  gay  creation,  hues  like  hers  1 
Or  cau  it  mix  them  with  that  matchless  skill, 
And  lose  them  in  each  other,  as  appears 
In  every  bud  that  blows  ?  " 

But  Botany  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  mere  accomplishment ; 
nor  is  it  only  to  be  studied  for  its  beauty.  It  is  a  most  impor- 
tant part  of  a  useful  education.  Indeed,  the  value  of  this  study 
is  so  great  that  it  can  scarcely  be  estimated. 

Most  of  the  early  writers  upon  plants  took  into  consideration 
only  the  subject  of  their  usefulness  in  the  art  of  healing.  The 
study  of  structure  and  mode  of  growth  was  left  to  modern  times 
—  till  after  the  microscope  came  to  reveal  the  marvels  of  plant 
structure,  and  bring  to  light  the  tissues  and  vessels  that  carry 
on  the  life  and  activity  of  plant  growth ;  till  Chemistry  discov- 
ered the  materials  that  have  built  up,  drop  by  drop  and  particle 
by  particle,  the  plants  of  the  world,  from  the  gray  Lichen  of 
the  hillside  rock  to  the  gigantic  forest  tree  towering  four  hun- 
dred feet  into  the  air. 

A  knowledge  of  the  geographical  locality  and  habits  of  plants 
enables  us  to  select  with  certainty  and  transplant  the  trees  and 
shrubs  that  beautify  our  lawns  and  gardens.  To  an  intelligent 
agriculturist,  an  understanding  of  some  of  the  departments  of 
Botany  is  indispensable.  He  must  know  the  habits  of  vegeta- 
bles and  their  mode  of  growth  in  order  to  prepare  his  ground ; 
he  must  know  their  composition  to  be  able  to  apply  the  requi- 
site food  ;  and  he  must  know  their  structure  and  organs  to 
determine  where  and  how  to  apply  it.  In  many  departments 
of  industry  a  knowledge  of  Botany  is  found  invaluable  and  it 
lends  assistance  to  the  various  arts  and  elegancies  of  life. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  departments  of  this  subject  deals 
with  the  history  of  the  cultivation  and  use  of  plants.  Their 
history,  in  a  measure,  runs  parallel  with  the  world's  history. 
When  communities  became  populous  they  could  no  longer 
depend  upon  the  chase,  because  the  demand  outgrew  the  supply  ; 
and  the  use  of  plants  for  food  was  a  natural  result.     The  needs 


INTRODUCTION.  xi 

of  man  undoubtedly  led  to  husbandry,  and  as  men  became 
more  numerous,  they  found  it  necessary  to  provide,  not  only 
for  more  certain  supplies  of  food,  but  for  more  permanent 
abodes ;  hence  the  cultivation  of  food  plants  and  the  establish- 
ment of  permanent  homes  must  have  been  simultaneous. 

Of  the  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  plants  which  make  up  the 
world's  vast  Flora,  about  three  hundred  constitute  the  food- 
bearing  plants  for  man ;  of  this  number,  by  far  the  greater 
part  is  herbaceous.  Among  the  cereals^  Wheat  is  the  most 
important ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  human  food-plants, 
having  been  cultivated  four  thousand  years  before  Christ.  Re- 
liable records  point  to  the  banks  of  the  River  Euphrates  as  its 
home.  Barley  has  a  history  which  makes  it  contemporaneous 
with  Wheat,  its  early  home  being  middle  Asia.  Rice  had  its 
origin  in  southern  China,  and  is  also  believed  to  have  been  con- 
temporaneous with  Wheat.  Rye  and  Oats^  the  other  two  great 
bread-plants,  had  their  origin  in  southeastern  Europe,  and  were 
under  cultivation  two  thousand  years  before  Christ. 

These  five  cereals  furnish  bread  for  the  teeming  millions  of 
the  earth,  and  there  are  no  records  to  show  that  they  have  ever 
been  found  in  a  condition  that  would  place  them  among  those 
plants  known  as  weeds. 

Among  plants  known  as  table  vegetables^  the  most  prominent, 
beginning  with  those  that  have  been  longest  in  use,  are  the 
Tarn'ip^  the  Onion ^  and  the  Cabbage,  which  have  been  used 
for  more  than  four  thousand  years.  The  home  of  the  Turnip 
and  Cabbage  is  middle  Europe,  and  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

The  Carroty  Beet^  Parsnip^  and  Asparagus  have  been  in  use 
two  thousand  years.  The  Carrot  and  Beet,  so  far  as  known, 
are  natives  to  western  Asia  and  eastern  Europe.  The  home  of 
the  Parsnip  is  P^urope,  and  the  Asparagus  is  native  to  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Levant. 

Among  the  fruits  that  minister  to  man's  support  as  food,  are 
the  Graj^e,  found  in  western  Asia ;  the  Apricot,  a  native  of 
China;  the  Apple^  Pear,  and  Quince,  natives  of  central  Europe, 
which  have  aceon^junied  man  in  all  his  changes  of  locality 
where  the  climate  permitted ;  the  Raspberry  and  Straicberry, 
choice  and  favorite  berries,   whose   cultivation  near   the  great 


xii  INTRODUCTION. 

cities  iu  the  Temperate  Zone  has  become  an  important  industry 
in  western  Asia  and  Europe ;  the  Cherry^  which  originated  near 
the  Caspian  Sea ;  the  Plurn^  a  native  of  northern  Persia ;  and 
the  Peachy  one  of  the  most  delicious,  if  not  the  most  popular, 
of  the  fruits  of  the  Temperate  Zones,  a  native  of  China. 

Sugar  Cane  is  native  to  Cochin  China,  and  southwestern 
China ;  it  is  known  to  have  been  in  use  more  than  two  thousand 
years. 

There  are  a  few  textile  plants  that  deserve  mention,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  Flax,  Hemp^  and  Jute.  Flax  was  cul- 
tivated near  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  four  thou- 
sand years  ago.  Hemp  is  of  Siberian  origin,  and  is  known  to 
have  been  under  cultivation  over  four  thousand  years.  Jute 
has  been  known  to  commerce  less  than  two  thousand  years. 

Of  the  three  hundred  species  of  cultivated  plants  that  were 
found  in  the  New  World,  the  most  important  food-yielding 
plants  are :  the  Potato,  whose  home  is  believed  to  be  Chile  and 
Peru ;  the  Sweet  Potato,  whose  home  is  in  the  warm  regions  of 
North  America;  Tobacco,  originally  found  in  Ecuador  and 
neighboring  regions ;  Indian  corn,  one  of  the  most  important 
cereals  of  the  present  age  ;  and  the  Pineapple,  found  in  Mexico, 
Central  America,  Panama,  and  Colombia.  These  constitute 
about  one  sixth  of  the  important  food-plants  of  the  whole  world. 

This  introduction  will  give  the  pupil  an  idea  of  the  character 
and  magnitude  of  the  study  of  the  Flora  of  Useful  Plants.  As 
a  specimen  of  the  plan  of  description  pursued  in  this  book,  we 
give  here  a  brief  outline  of  a  few  illustrations,  beginning  with 
Wheat,  which  stands  at  the  head  of  the  cereals.  After  classi- 
fying it  under  the  order  Gramineae  and  the  genus  Triticum,  the 
description  proceeds  as  follows  :  — 

Triticum  vulgare,  L.  (Wheat.)  Stem  or  culm  2  to  5  feet  high,  tapering 
from  the  root  to  the  base  of  the  head  or  the  ear,  divided  by  nodes  into  several 
interuodes,  or  lengths,  from  4  to  7  inches  long.  At  each  node  is  a  single, 
clasping,  lance-shaped  leaf,  strongly  veined  and  rough  on  the  upper  side. 
Flowers  appear  at  the  top  of  the  culm  in  a  close  panicle. 

The  grains,  or  .seeds,  are  oval  in  shape,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  flat, 
and  marked  on  the  side  next  the  rachis  by  a  groove  the  whole  length,  outside 
convex.  It  is  an  annual,  and  when  planted  in  early  spring,  it  flowers  and 
fruits  the  same  season  ;  when  thus  cultivated  it  is  known  as  "  summer  wheat " 
or  "  spring  wheat."    The  best  wheat  is  biennial ;  it  is  planted  in  early  autumn. 


INTRODUCTION.  xili 

in  time  to  take  root  and  form  root  or  radical  leaves  before  winter  sets  in;  it 
ripens  in  July  of  the  following  year,  and  is  called  "  winter  wheat,"  because  it 
remains  in  the  ground  during  the  winter. 

Geography.  —  Wlieat,  the  most  important  of  all  the  cereal  family,  has  not 
been  found  in  what  is  considered  the  wild  state,  and  though  it  has  assumed 
several  forms  or  varieties,  it  has  not  so  departed  from  the  typical  form  as  to 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  ever  what  might  be  regarded  as  a  weed. 

Wheat  when  planted  north  of  the  fiftieth  parallel  does  not  fruit ;  neither 
will  it  bear  well  south  of  30°  in  America.  In  Europe,  it  fruits  as  high 
as  51°  in  southern  Russia,  and  as  low  as  37°  in  southern  Italy.  It  is  culti- 
vated successfully  in  Turkey,  Syria,  northern  and  southern  Africa,  iJrazil, 
Chile,  Argentine  Republic,  and  Australia. 

Etymology.  —  Triticum  is  from  the  Latin  tero,  rub,  referring  to  the  mode  of 
reducing  the  grain  to  flour.  Vulgare,  common,  is  from  the  Latin.  The  com- 
mon name,  wheat,  is  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  seveta,  white,  and  is  due  to 
the  white  flour  produced  from  the  grain. 

History.  — No  form  of  wheat  has  ever  been  found  in  a  wild  state.  Its  home 
is  believed  to  have  been  western  Asia.  It  was  brought  to  America  by  a  negro 
slave  belonging  to  Cortes,  and  was  first  planted  in  Mexico. 

Cultivation.  —  Wheat  will  not  grow  upon  poor  soil  nor  thrive  upon  scanty 
fare.  It  demands  a  deep,  heavy  soil,  well  tilled,  and  highly  fertilized.  In 
the  United  States,  especially  in  the  rich  soils  of  the  Central  States,  fifty 
bushels  to  the  acre  is  not  an  unusual  yield. 

Use.  —  Wheat  is  the  bread  grain  of  man  in  all  regions  of  the  earth  where 
it  will  grow.  The  straw  is  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  hats  for  both  men 
women.     It  furnishes  the  material  for  the  fine  leghorn  hats  and  bonnets. 

Marts.  —  The  great  wheat  markets  are  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  Riga  on 
the  Baltic,  all  the  north  German  ports,  Constantinople,  London,  Liverpool, 
Chicago,  San  Francisco,  New  York,  and  Toronto. 

The  building  and  structural  material  of  the  world  is  obtained 
from  about  eighty  genera,  from  twenty-five  orders.  Of  these 
eighty  genera,  thirty  are  cone-bearing  plants ;  hence  the  great- 
est amount  of  building  material  is  furnished  by  the  Conifera?. 

We  therefore  choose  for  illustration  one  of  its  genera,  the 
Tsuga,  which  yields  the  Hemlock. 

Tsuga  Canadensis.  Carr.  (Hemlock  Spruce.)  Trunk  50  to  100  feet  in 
height,  branching  freely.  Bark  gray,  smooth  on  young  trees,  but  very  rough 
and  furrowed  on  old  trees.  Leaves  solitary,  flat,  sliglitly  toothed,  blunt  at  the 
apex,  in  two  ranks,  half  an  inch  long,  and  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  wide. 
Cones  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter; scales  suborbicular,  half  an  inch  long;  wing  less  than  half  an  inch 
broad.     Flowers  in  June  ;   seed  matures  in  the  following  year  in  June. 

Geography.  — The  geographical  range  of  the  hemlock  is  confined  to  a  belt 
on  both  sides  of  the  forty-fifth  parallel,  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  reaching 


xiv  INTRODUCTION. 

down  to  Pennsylvania  in  mountainous  regious,  and  even  to  North  Carolina, 
and  as  far  north  as  Oregon  and  Hudson  Bay. 

Etymologij.—  Tsuga  is  Japanese  for  "yew-leaved"  or  "evergreen."  The 
name  Canadensis  comes  from  Canada,  the  home  of  the  tree.  The  origin  of 
hemlock,  the  common  name,  is  not  so  easily  determined ;  it  is  suggested  that  it 
comes  from  hem,  the  edge  or  border,  and  loc,  fasten,  inclose,  alluding  to  the 
use  of  the  tree  in  liedgiug.  Again,  hem  means  "injure"  or  "cripple,"  and 
may  allude  to  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  cicuta,  called  hemlock. 

History.  —  The  hemlock  is  an  American  tree  ;  it  was  taken  to  Europe  soon 
after  the  settlement  of  northeastern  America,  and  grows  well  in  the  northern 
parts  of  England. 

Use.  —  As  an  ornamental  tree  the  hemlock  is  a  favorite  in  large  grounds. 
When  not  crowded  it  rises  to  the  height  of  40  to  80  feet,  a  perfect  pyramid, 
its  lower  branches  resting  on  the  ground.  Its  foliage  is  the  most  delicate  of 
all  the  Coniferae.  It  bears  the  knife  well,  and  makes  a  compact  and  beautiful 
hedge.  The  wood  is  soft,  easily  split,  and  has  a  very  coarse  grain ;  yet  it  is 
strong,  holds  a  nail  well,  requires  a  great  force  to  produce  a  cross  fracture, 
and  is  very  durable.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  frames  of  edifices,  for  joists  and 
for  sheathing,  being  the  cheapest  of  all  the  soft-wood  lumber.  The  lumber  is 
obtained  from  the  stripped  trunks,  which  are  sawed  into  13-feet  lengths, 
which  during  the  following  winter  are  drawn  to  the  frozen  streams  and  left 
till  the  spring  thaw,  when  they  are  floated  down  to  the  saw-miUs,  where  they 
are  sawed  into  boards,  scantling,  and  ceiling  laths,  and  thence  sent  to 
market. 

The  bark  is  highly  charged  with  tannin,  and  is  used  in  immense  quantities 
for  manufacturing  leather.  It  is  obtained  by  felling  the  tree  in  the  early 
summer,  when  the  sap  is  in  its  greatest  activity ;  girdles  are  cut  around  the 
trunk  and  large  branches  by  means  of  an  axe,  and  with  a  wedge-shaped  bar 
the  bark  is  stripped ;  it  is  then  piled  to  dry.  Its  value  is  estimated  by  the 
cord. 


BRIEF    STATEMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT 
AND    ITS    SUBDIVISIONS. 


BOTANY  may  be  subdivided  into  the  following  depart- 
ments :  Structural,  Physiological,  and  Systematic  Botany. 

Structural  Botany  has  for  its  object  the  investigation  of  the 
structure,  mode  of  growth,  and  functions  of  the  cells  and  vessels 
that  make  up  the  plant.  Organographi/  is  a  division  of  this 
department  that  has  special  reference  to  the  organs.  Morphol- 
ogy is  properly  a  division  of  Structural  Botany  and  notes  the 
changes  that  take  place  in  the  cells  and  tissues  of  plants. 

Physiological  Botany  takes  into  consideration  the  vital  action 
in  the  reception,  preparation,  and  disposition  of  the  nourishment 
necessary  to  keep  up  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  to  enable  it  to 
perform  the  offices  of  flowering  and  fruiting. 

Systematic  Botany  embraces  the  classification  of  plants  and 
their  arrangement  under  classes,  with  accurate  descriptions  in 
scientific  terms  of  those  characters  that  determine  the  classifica- 
tion of  a  plant.  The  Descriptive  Botany  in  this  book  comes 
under  the  head  of  Systematic  Botany.  Glossology^  which  is  a 
division  of  Systematic  Botany,  has  for  its  object  the  application 
of  appropriate  names  to  the  organs  and  parts  of  a  vegetable,  by 
means  of  which  a  plant  may  be  so  described  as  to  distinguish  it 
from  every  other  individual  except  one  of  its  own  species. 

To  the  above  may  be  added  the  Art  or  Practice  of  Botany, 
which  consists  m  applying  the  principles  investigated  under  the 
above  heads  to  determining  the  class,  order,  etc.,  of  an  individ- 
ual plant.  It  also  includes  the  collecting,  drying,  labeling  and 
arranging  of  botanical  specimens. 


XVI  BHTEF   STATEMENT  OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

The  classification  and  nomenclatnre  of  the  Vegetable  King- 
dom has  taxed  the  ingenuity  and  talent  of  the  most  learned 
and  skillful  l)otanists.  The  primary  ol)ject  of  classification  is 
to  arrange  the  individual  plants  or  species  that  resemble  each 
other  in  the  greatest  number  of  characters  around  a  common 
center  called  a  genus ;  those  genera  which  possess  the  greatest 
number  of  constant  common  characters  are  clustered  round  a 
common  center  called  an  order ;  the  orders  in  like  manner  are 
grouped  into  cohorts  and  classes ;  the  classes  in  their  turn 
have  a  center  called  a  series,  or  a  subkingdom,  —  the  common 
center  of  the  whole  being  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY, 


Pr.  Fl.  —  2 


NAMES    OF    AUTHORS 

CITED   IN   THIS   VOLUME,    WITH   ABBREVIATIONS. 


Adanson 

.     .     .     .     Adaiis. 

Endlicher  .... 

EndL 

Alton 

.     .     .     .     Ait. 

Engelmaun 

Enyl. 

Allemo. 

Fischer 

Fisch. 

Alpiuus. 

Forster 

Forst. 

Andrews. 

Fremont. 

Aublet  . 

.     .     .    Aub. 

Gaertner     .... 

Gaert. 

Austin   . 

.     .     .     Aust. 

Gejer 

Gey. 

Bauhin  . 

.     .     .     Bauh. 

Goldie. 

Beauvois 

Beauv. 

Gray 

Gr. 

Bentham 

.     .     .     Benth. 

Hayne. 

Bentley. 

Heretier      .... 

Her. 

Berg. 

Hoffman     .... 

Hoffm. 

Blackstone 

.     .     .     BL 

Hooker 

Hook. 

Boissier 

.     .     .     Boiss. 

Houttuyu   .... 

Houtt. 

Bonplaud 

.     .     B.  or  Bonpl. 

Humboldt  .... 

H.  or  Humb. 

Breyu. 

Humboldt,  Boupland 

Britton  . 

.    .    .    Br  in. 

and  Kunth  .     .     . 

H.  B.  K. 

Brown,  R. 

.     .     .     R.  Br. 

Koch. 

Carriere 

.     .     .     Carr. 

Kunth 

K. 

Chaix. 

Labilladiere    .     .     . 

Lab.  or  Labill. 

Chamisso 

.     .          Cham. 

Lamarck     .... 

Lam. 

Clinton. 

Lambert      .... 

Lamb. 

Coulter  .     . 

.     .     .     Coult. 

Lawson. 

Decaisne     . 

.     .     .     Decsne 

Lecheuault      .     .     . 

Lech. 

De  Candoll 

e(A.)      DC.f.ovA.DC. 

Lehmann    .... 

Lehm. 

De  Candoll 

e(A.P.)     DC. 

Lind. 

Delile. 

Lindley 

Lindl. 

Don. 

Link.' 

Lk. 

Duchesne. 

Linnaeus    .... 

L.  or  Linn. 

Dunal. 

Linne,  C.  von  (son 

Du  Roi. 

of  Linnseus)     .     . 

L.f. 

Elliott    .     . 

.     .     .    Ell. 

Loddiges    .... 

Lodd. 

NAMES  OF  AUTHORS. 


Loudou Loud. 

Marshall     ....  Marsh. 
Marshall  aud  Bieber- 

stein M.  B. 

Martius      ....  Mart. 
Matou. 

Medicus      ....  Medic. 

Michaux     ....  Michx.  or  Mx. 
Michaux  (the  youuger)  Mx.f. 

Miller     ..'...  Mill. 

Moenchauseu  .     .     .  Moench. 

Moquiu       ....  Moq. 

Muhlenberg   .     .     .  Muhl. 

Necker Neck. 

Nees  von  Eseubeck  JS/ees. 

Nuttall iV.  or  Nutt. 

Olivier Oliv. 

Pavon Pav. 

Persoon       ....  Pers. 

Plumier      ....  Plum. 
Pohl. 

Poiret Poir. 

Presl. 

Pursh Ph. 

Rafinesque-Schmaltz  Raj'. 

Reinwaldt  ....  Reiiiw. 

Retzius Retz. 

Richard      ....  Rich. 


Risso      .     .     . 

.    .    Riss. 

Robbius. 

Roscoe   .     . 

.     .     Rose. 

RottboeU    . 

.     .     Rotth. 

Roxburgh  . 

.     .     Rox.  or  Roxh. 

Savi. 

Schlechteudal 

.     .     Schlecfi. 

Schrader     . 

.     .     Schrad. 

Schultes 

.     .     Sch.  or  iSchult 

ISims. 

iSpach. 

ISwartz   .     . 

.     .     Sw.  or  iSwz. 

Thomas. 

Thompson. 

Thuillier     . 

.     .     Thu.  or  Thuill 

Thunberg  . 

.     .     Thiinb. 

Torrey  .     .     . 

.     .     T.  or  Torr. 

Touruefort 

.     .     2'ouru. 

Wahleuberg   . 

.     .      Wahl. 

Waldstein  . 

.     .     W. 

Wallich. 

Walter  .     . 

.     .     Walt. 

Wangenheim 

.     .      Wang. 

Watson,  S. 

.     .     S.  Wats. 

Wedderburn 

.     .     Wedd. 

Wight. 

Willdeuow 

.     .     Willd. 

WiUis     .     . 

.    .    .     Wil. 

KEY 


To  trace  a  plant  to  its  natural  Order  based  upon  those  char- 
acters which  are  most  obvious. 


Subkingdom  I.     FLOWERING   PLANTS  (Phaenogams). 

Class  I.     DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Leaves  uetted-veined.     Flowers  rarely  3-])arte(l,  mostly  4-5-parted.     Wood, 

if  any,  in  concentric  rings. 
Seed  in  a  vessel.     Stigmas  present.     Embryos  with  2  cotyledons. 

Cohort  I. 

Calyx  aiul  corolla  present ;  petals  separate,  sometimes  wanting,  in  which  case  the 
sepals  are  bright  colored.  APOPET  AL-^. 

Cohort  n. 

Calyx  and  corolla  present :  petals  more  or  less  united.         SYMPETAL-(E. 

Cohort  m. 

Calyx  present,  but  no  corolla,  or  both  wanting.  APETAL-^. 

Class  II.     MOXOCOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Leaves  parallel-veined  (rarely  netted).     Flowers  .3-parted.     Bark  and  wood 
commingled  with  pith.     Koot  not  axial.     Embryo  with  one  cotyledon. 

Cohort  IV. 

Flowers  in  a  spadix.  SPADICIFLOR.(E. 

Cohort  V. 

Floral  envelope  in  two  .'i-parted  whorls;  outer  one  green  or  colored  (Lilies,  etc.). 

PETALOIDE^. 
Cohort  VI 

Floral  envelope  chatf-like  (Grasses  and  Grains).  GLUMIFER,^. 

Class  III.     GYMNOSPERMS. 

Stigma  wanting.     Seed  naked.     Hark  and  wood  ribors  in  concentric  rings. 

Cohort  Vn 

Cone-bearing  plants  (Pines,  etc.).  CONIFER-ffi. 

5 


6  KEY   TO   ORDERS. 

Subkingdom  I. 

Class  I. 
COHORT  I.     APOPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Herbaceous  Plants. 
Calyx  and  corolla  present. 

Stems  sometimes  climbing.     Leaves  alternate,  or  opposite,  2-3-ternately  com- 
pound, or  merely  lobed.     Flowers  regular. 

Ranunculaceae. 

Stems  bifid.     Leaves  peltate.      Sepals  falling.      Valves  of  anthers  not  opening 
upwards.     Flowers  regular. 

Podophyllum  in  Berberidaceae. 

With  milky  juice.     Sepals  falling.     Ovary  compound,  l-celled,  several  placentae 
on  wall.     Flowers  regular. 

Papaveraceae. 

Stems  simple  or  branched  above.     Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  regular,  5-merous. 
Fruit  a  loculicidal  10-seeded  capsule. 

Linacese. 

With  stems.     Leaves  alternate,  stipulate.     Sepals  5.     Petals  5,  differing  in  size 
and  shape,  one  terminating  in  a  spur.     Flowers  irregular. 

Violaceae, 

Without  stems.     Leaves  all  radical.     Petals  and  sepals  5,  one  petal  ending  in  a 
spur.     Flowers  irregular. 

Viqlaceae. 

Leaves   alternate.     Flowers  cruciform,   regular.      Sepals  4,  falling.      Petals  4, 
hypogynous.     Stamens  6,  2  shorter.     Fruit  a  2-celled  pod. 

Crueiferse. 

Stems  prostrate,  creeping,  or  clambering.     Flowers  sympetalous,  monoecious  or 
dioecious.     Limb  of  calyx  and  corolla  5-lobed.     Fruit  a  Pepo. 

Cucurbitaceae. 

Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  in  umbels.    Stamens  5,  styles  2.     Fruit  dry,  dividing 
into  halves  when  ripe. 

Umbelliferae. 
Shrubs. 

Calyx  and  corolla  present. 

Leaves  alternate.      Sepals   and   petals   .5-merous ;   sepals   imbricate.      Stamens 

many.     Fruit  a  berry. 

Bixineae. 

Leaves  alternate.      Calyx  free,  involucelled,  5-lobed.     Corolla  .5-merous.     Sta- 
mens many,  monadelphous,  attached  to  the  petals.    Pistils  several,  ovaries  in  a  ring 

around  an  axis. 

Malvaceae. 

Tn  regions  of  little  frost.     Leaves  alternate,  palmate.     Sepals  4-8,  free  or  cohe- 
rent.   Petals  4-8.     Flowers  regular,  cruciform. 

Capparidaceae. 

With  watery  juice,  climbing  by  tendrils.     Stamens  same  in  number  as  petals 
and  opposite  to  them.     Calyx  lobes  very  small  or  wanting.     Petals  valvate. 

Ampelideae. 


APOPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS.  7 

Leaves  alternate,   stipules  small.     Flowers  perfect  or  without  petals.     Stamens 
alternate  with  sepals.    Fruit  a  l-seeded  capsule. 

RhamnaceaB. 
Leaves  alternate,  feather- veined.    Calyx  persistent.     Stamens  on  base  of  petals. 
Flowers  regular. 

Ternstroemiaceae. 
Leaves   alternate,  simple,  3-5-lobed.      Stipules   aduate  or   u.      Stamens   5-10. 
Styles  2-3,  distinct.     Flowers  regular. 

Saxifragaceee. 
Leaves  alternate,  simple.     Calyx  minute.     Petals  ovate  4-6,  separate,  or  united 
at  base.     Fruit  a  drupaceous  berry.     Flowers  regular. 

Ilicinese. 
Leaves  alternate,  simple.     Calyx  tubular,  limb  5-toothed.     Corolla  0.     Seed  a 
drupe.     Flowers  regular. 

Combretaceae. 
Leaves  alternate,  compound.      Flowers  small,  inconspicuous,  regular,  5-merous. 
Stigmas  3.     Fruit  drupaceous. 

Anacardiaceae. 
Trees. 

Calyx  and  corolla  present. 

Leaves  alternate.      Sepals  5,  persistent.      Petals   clawed,   and  tongue-shaped. 
Stamens  in  a  lobed  tube.     Flowers  regular.     Fruit  a  fleshy  septicidal  capsule. 

Sterculiaceae. 
Leaves  opposite,  pinnate,  stipulate.     Calyx  5-parted.     Sepals  5.     Stamens  10. 
Flowers  regular.     Fruit  a  loculicidal  capsule. 

Zygophyllaceae. 
Leaves  alternate,  pinnate.     Calyx  obscure.    Petals  5.    Stamens  united  in  a  tube. 
Ovary  many-celled.     Seeds  numerous.    Flowers  regular. 

Meliaceae. 
Leaves  alternate.     Calyx  falling.    Petals  4-5.     Stamens  double  or  multiple  of 
the  parts  of  corolla.     Flowers  regular. 

Tiliaceae, 
Leaves  simple.     Petals  sometimes  0.     Calyx  4-5-cleft.    Stamens  equal  in  num- 
ber to  petals.     Ovary  superior.     Flowers  regular. 

Rutaceae. 
Leaves    opposite,    3-nerved.      Calyx    superior.      Limbs    5-parted,      Petals    5. 
Stamens  many.     Ovary  2-  or  more-celled.     Flowers  regular. 

Myrtaceae. 
Leaves  opposite.      Calyx   colored,   5-many-parted.      Petals  5-7,    on  throat  of 
calyx.     Stamens  many.    Flowers  regular.    Berry  globular.     Seeds  many. 

Lythraceae. 
Leaves  opposite,   simple,   lobed.     Stamens  5-8-10.     Ovary  2-celled.     Flowers 
regular.     Fruit  winged. 

Sapindaceae. 
Herbs,  Shrubs,  and  Trees. 

Leaves  alternate,  .stipulate,  compound.    Flowers  papilionaceous.    Stamens  united 
in  1-2  groups.     Seed  vessel  a  legume  or  bean. 

Xieguminosae. 
I>eaves  alternate,  stii>ulate.     Stamens  on  the  calyx,  distinct.     Pistils  1  to  many, 
usually  distinct,  sometimes  united,  each  with  a  stigma.     Ovary  simple,  1-celled 
1-ovuled. 

Rosaceae. 


8  KEY   TO   ORDERS. 

Leaves  trifoliate,   radical,  petioles  long.     Sepals  5  with  5  alternate  bractlets. 
Petals  white.     Stamens  and  pistils  many.     Fruit  a  heart-shaped  edible  receptacle. 

Fragaria  in  Bosaceae. 
Leaves  compound  in  2-3  pairs  and  a  terminal  one.     Fruit  an  aggregation  of 
little  drupes  on  a  dry  receptacle.     In  the  blackberry  the  receptacle  is  succulent  and 
edible. 

Rubus  (raspberry  and  blackberry)  in  Rosaceae. 

Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  in  racemes.      Fruit  a  smooth  drupe  stone  or  pit 
flattened, 

Prunus  (plum)  in  Rosaceae. 
Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  in  twos  and  threes  or  solitary.     Fruit  an  ovoid  drupe. 
Stone  smooth. 

Prunus  (plum  and  apricot)  in  Rosacese. 
Flowers  in  racemes.     Fruit  a  smooth  globular  or  heart-shaped  drupe.    Stone 
smooth,  globular. 

Prunus  (cherry)  in  Rosaceae. 
Leaves  appearing  after  the  flowers.     Fruit  a  tomentose  drupe,  ovoid.     Stone  fur- 
I'owed  or  wrinkled. 

Prunus  (peach  and  almond)  in  Rosaceae. 

Leaves  ovate,    crenate,  serrate,   woolly   beneath,    smooth  above.      Flowers   in 
corymbs.     Fruit  a  fleshy  pome.     Carpels  2-5,  inclosed  in  a  fleshy  calyx. 

Pyrus  (apple  and  pear)  in  Rosaceae. 
Leaves  oblong,  or  broad  ovate,  blunt  at  base  and  sharp  at  apex.     Carpels  5  or 
more  inclosed  in  the  fleshy  calyx.     Fruit  a  fleshy,  fragrant  pome. 

Pyrus  (quince)  in  Rosaceae. 

COHORT  n.     SYMPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS   ATIGIOSPERMS. 

Herbaceous  Plants. 

Calyx  and  corolla  present. 

Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  crowded  in  an  involucrate  head  composed  usually  of 
a  disc  of  yellow  flowers,  encircled  by  a  ring  of  white,  pink,  or  purple  ones. 

Compositae. 
Leaves   alternate.     Juice   milky.      Flowers   perfect   and  regular,    bell-shaped. 
Limb  5-Iobed.     Stamens  5,  free. 

Campanulaceae. 

Stem  twining  or  clambering.     Leaves  alternate.     Calyx  .5-lobed.     Corolla  bell- 
shaped.     Limb  5-lobed.     Flowers  regular,  axillary. 

Convolvulaceae. 

Leaves  alternate.     Calyx  and  corolla  5-lobed.     Stamens  5  on  the  corolla.     Fruit 
usually  2-celled,  many  seeded. 

Solanaceae. 

Leaves  alternate.     Calyx  .5-lobed.      Corolla  2-lipped,   5-lobed.     Stamens  5,  on 
corolla  tube.     Flowers  irregular.     Fruit  a  driipe. 

Pedalineae. 

Hairy  and  rough.    Leaves  alternate.    Calyx  5-parte(l.     Corolla  5-lobed.     Stamens 
on  the  tube.     Ovary  4-lobed. 

Borraginaoeae. 

Stems  square.     Leaves  opposite  and  aromatic.      Flowers  irregular.     Corolla  2- 
lipped.    Ovary  4-lobed. 

Iiabiatae, 

Leaves   alternate.      Flowers  solitary.      Ovary   inferior,  many-celled.     Stamens 
double  the  number  of  corolla  lobes. 

Vacciniaceae. 


APETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 


Hbrbs  and  Trees. 

Leaves  opposite,  stipulate.     Calyx  tubular  or  0.     Corolla  limit  4-6-lobe(l.     Sta- 
mens 4-6  on  corolla  tube. 

Rubiacesc. 
Leaves   alternate.     Flowers  rcf^ular.     Stamens  inserted  at  the  Ijuttoni  of  corolla 
tube,  and  twice  as  many  as  lobes. 

EbenacesB. 
Juice  milky.     Leaves  alternate.     Corolla  furnished  with  scales  on  the  inner  sur- 
face.    Ovary  5-mauy-celled. 

Sapotacese. 
Leaves  opposite,  pinnate.    Calyx  4-cleft.    Corolla  4-cleft  or  0.   Stamens  2.    Fruit 
a  drupe. 

Oleaceae. 
Leaves  opposite,  entire,  substipulate.     Calyx  and  corolla  5-lobed.     Stamens  5. 
Flowers  regular. 

Ijoganiacese. 
Leaves  opposite.    Calyx  toothed.    Corolla  4-5-lobed.    Stamens  4.    On  the  corolla 
sometimes  only  2.     Flowers  irregular. 

Verbenaceee. 


COHORT  m.     APETALOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Calyx  present,  but  no  Corolla,  or  l)<)th  wanting. 

Herbs. 

Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  small,  inconspicuous,  regular.     Calyx  free.    Stamens 
equal  to  number  of  calyx  lobes. 

Chenopodiacese. 
Leaves  alternate,  sheathing.     Calyx  and  corolla  wanting.     Stamens  1-9,  usuallv 
t)-8. 

Fagopyruni  in  Polygonacese. 

Shrubs. 

Leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  5-nerved.    Calyx  wanting.    Ovary  1-celled.    Flowers 
crowded  on  a  long  spadix.     Fruit  a  berry. 

Piperaceae. 
Trees. 

Leaves  alternate.     Calyx  oval,  u-lobed.     Stamens  3-15. 

Myristicacese. 

Leaves  alternate.     Sepals  4-6,    colored.     Ovary  1-celled,  1-ovuled,   anotlier   li<l 
opening  upwards. 

LauraceaD. 

Leaves  alternate.     Sepals  5.    Stamens  5.     Ovary  inferior.     Fruit  a  nut. 

Santalaceae. 
Leaves  alternate,  piiniate.     Calyx   2-4-lol)ed  or  entire.     Stamens  3   to  many. 
Ovary  1-celled.     Ovule  1.     Fruit  a  nut. 

Juglandaceae. 

Shrubs  .vnd  Trees. 

Leaves  alternate  and  stipulate.    Flowers  in  catkins,  naked.    Fruit  l-<-elled.     Pod 
2-4-valved.     Seeds  clothed  with  a  silkv  down. 

Salicaceae. 

Leaves  alternate.    Stipules  falling.     Fertile  Howers  solitary.    Sterile  ones  in  cat- 
kins.    Fruit  a  1-celled,  1-seeded  nut. 

Cupuliferee. 


10  KEY   TO   ORDERS. 

Herbs,  Shrubs,  and  Trees. 
Leaves  alternate  or  opposite.    Juice  milky.     Flowers  sometimes  with  petals. 
Many  staminate  Howers  each  with  a  naked  stamen. 

Euphorbia  in  Euphorbiacese. 
Stamens  inserted  round  a  central  column 

Hevea  in  Euphorbiaceae. 
Ovarian  cells  1-ovuled.     Staminate  flowers  without  rudimentary  ovary. 

Croton  in  Euphorbiaceae. 
Stamens  polyadelphous.     No  rudiment  of  an  ovary. 

Ricinus  in  Euphorbiaceae. 
Leaves  alternate,  stipulate,  penninerved.     Flowers  with  a  calyciforni  envelope, 
or  0.    Ovary  1 -celled. 

Urticaceae. 

Floral  envelope  single  or  0.    Styles  1-2.    Fruit  a  cylindrical  mass  of  little  drupes. 

Morus  in  Urticaceae. 
Flowers  fascicled.     Perianth  slightly  colored,  or  leaf-like,  4-5-8-lobed. 

Ulmus  in  Urticaceae. 
Perianth  herbaceous.     Sepals  5.     Stamens  5.     Flowers  in  strobiloid  spikes. 

Humulus  in  Urticaceae. 
Fruit  a  smooth,  dry,  1-seeded  pericarp. 

Cannabis  in  Urticaceae. 

Class  II. 

COHORT  IV.     SPADICIFLOROUS  MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Trees  and  shrubs  with  unbranched  trunks.  Flowers  on  a  branching  spadix  burst- 
ing from  a  .spathe. 

Palmae. 

COHORT  V.     PETALOIDEOUS  MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Herbs. 

Floral  envelope  in  two  3-parted  whorls,  outer  one  green,  frequently  colored. 
Rhizome  tuberous  and  creeping.  Flowers  with  double  perianth.  Outer  folia- 
ceous,  inner  petaloid,  irregular,  made  up  of  petals  and  staminodes.  Ovary  inferior, 
3-celled.     Flowers  irregular. 

Zingiberaceae. 
Leaves  at  base  of  stem  or  scape,  sheathing  rigid,  outer  floral  envelope  calyx-like. 
Flowers  spiked,  regular. 

Ananassa  in  Bromeliaceae. 

Leaves  equitant  in  2  ranks.  Floral  envelope  petaloid.  Stamens  3.  Ovary  infe- 
rior, 3-celled,  many  seeded.     Spathe  2-valved.     Filaments  equal. 

Crocus  in  Iridaceae. 

Stem  simple,  or  branched  near  the  summit.  Leaves  simple,  .sheathing,  or  amplex- 
icaid.     Perianth  tubular.     Limb  6-lobed.     Stamens  on  the  throat. 

Phormium  in  Liliaceae. 

Perianth  tubular.     Stamens  on  the  receptacle  or  tube  of  perianth.    Leaves  flesliy. 

Aloe  in  Liliaceae. 
Herbs  becoming  woody.     Leaves  alternate.     Stem  a  woody  vine.    Parasitic  upon 
large  trees.     Flowers  irregular.      Fruit  a  lengthened  pod,  many-seeded.     Seeds 

fragrant. 

Vanilla  in  Orchldaceae. 

Herbs  becoming  woody,  twining  or  clambering  vines.     Leaves  opposite,  netted- 

veined.     Flowers  small,  in  racemose  spikes,  axillary.     Perianth  6-parted.     Stamens 

6.     Fruit  3-angled,  winged. 

Dioscorea  in  Dioscoreaceae. 


GLUMIPEKOUS  MONOCOTYLKDOXOrS  A\(iIOSPERMS.      11 


COHORT  VI.     GLUMIFEROUS  MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  AWGIOSPERMS. 

P'loral  envelope  chaff-like  or  wanting,  mostly  herbaceous. 

Stem  cylindrical,  tapering,  and  hollow,  with  closed  joints.  Leaves  alternate, 
sheathing,  sheath  split  opposite  the  blade.  Flowers  glumaceous,  in  spikelets. 
Perianth  imperfect  or  wanting.  Stamens  iisually  3,  sometimes  fi.  Grasses  and 
grains. 

Gramineae. 

Spikelets  in  twos  or  threes.     Stamens  3.     Stigmas  on  long  tiliform  styles. 

Saccharum  and  Sorghum  in  Gramineae. 
Spikelets  all  fertile  in  a  panicle.    Stamens  6,  sometimes  3. 

Oryza  in  Gramineae. 
Spikelets  monoecious  or  polygamous,  in  a  spicate  panicle.     Stamens  2-3.    Styles 
elongated  filamentous. 

Zea  in  Gramineae 

Spikelets  all  fertile  in  a  panicle.     Stamens  3.     Stigmas  sessile. 

Avena  in  Gramineae. 
Spikelets  all  fertile.     Glumes  2,  seldom  1,  varying  in  length.     Stamens  3,  rarely 
1.     Stigmas  sessile,  or  nearly  so. 

Triticum,  Hordeum,  and  Secale  in  Gramineae, 

Class  TIL 

COHORT  Vn.     CONIFEROUS  GYMWOSPERMS. 

Cone-bearing  plants,  mostly  trees.  Juice  resinous.  Leaves  awl-  or  needle-shaped. 
No  calyx  or  corolla.     Pistil  on  an  open  scale.     Ovules  naked. 

Coniferae. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 


Subkingdom  I.     FLOWERING  PLANTS  (PhaenogamsK 

Plants  that  produce  proper  flowers  aud  bear  seeds. 

Class  1.     DICOTYLEDONOUS   AXGIOSPERMS. 

Embryo  dicotyledonous.  Leaves  uetted-veined.  Flowers  mostly  5-  or  4- 
merous. 

Apopetalce. 
(Sometimes  without  petals.) 

Order  I.    RANUNCULACEJG. 

Herbs  or  small  shrubs.  Stamens  numerous.  Carpels  not  united. 
Sometimes  without  petals,  and  sepals  colored  like  petals. 

Involucre,  consisting  of  2-3  divided  leaves  an  inch  or  more  below  the  flower. 
lladical  leaves,  3-7-parted.  Carpels  many  without  grooves,  ending  in  a  short 
beak.     Receptacle  hemispherical,  conical,  or  cylindrical. 

Windflower,  Anemone. 

Involucre  compound.  Sepals  5-10,  white.  Petals  0.  Stigma,  broad,  flat, 
terminal.     Leaves  radical  compound.     Flowers  umbellate. 

Rue  Anemone,  Anemonella. 

Sepals  3-.5.  Petals,  5  or  more,  with  a  scale  or  pit  at  base.  Stamens  numerous, 
seldom  few.  Akenes  numerous,  flattened,  ovate,  pointed,  in  globular  or  cylin- 
drical heads.    Leaves  mostly  radical.    Flowers  terminal,  solitary,  or  corymbose. 

Buttercup,  Crowfoot,  Ranunculus. 

Flowers  in  compound  panicles,  greenish  or  white.  Sepals  4-.5-7,  concave, 
falling  early.  No  petals.  P'ilaments  larger  above,  longer  than  sepals. 
Numerous  akenes,  ribbed  or  swollen.  Leaves  u.«?ually  ternately  compound, 
leaflets  stalked. 

Meadow  Rue,  Thalictrum. 

Growing  in  wet  places  or  in  the  water.  Sepals  golden  yellow,  .5-9.  Petals 
wanting.     Leaves  round,  kidney-shaped,  usually  crenate,  glabrous.     Follicles 

.5-10. 

Cowslip,  Marsh  Marigold,  Caltha. 

Sepals  4,  petal-like.  Petals  none.  Akenes  numerous.  Styles  feathery  or 
hairy.     Leaves  opposite,  mostly  climbers. 

Virgin's  Bower,  Clematis. 

12 


APOPETAI.OUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS   ANGIOSPEKMS.        13 


OKDiiK  II.    BERBERIDACE^. 

Herbs  and  shrubs.  Parts  of  the  perhiiith  L'—'i-seriate.  Stamens 
opposite  tlie  petals.  Anthers  mostly  valviihir.  Carpel  solitary, 
1-celled. 

Calyx  of  6  sepals.  Corolla  of  (5  petals.  Anthers  6.  Style  0.  Berry 
l-t-elled. 

Barberry,  Berberis. 
Flowers  white.     Petals  6-9.     Stamens   12-18.     Anthers  o))eiiin^  hy  slits. 
Leaves,  two  iu  nuinl^er,  alternate,  .5-9-lol)etl.     Lohes  toothed. 

May  Apple,  Mandrake,  Podophyllum. 

Order  III.     PAP  AVERAGES. 

Herbs  with  milky  or  colored  juice.  Flowers  regular.  Sepals  2, 
rarely  :5,  falling  off  early.  Petals  4-12.  Stamens  many.  Syncarpous 
ovary,  1-chambered.     Placenti^  on  the  wall. 

Leaves  large,  pinnate,  and  glaucous.  Leaflets  deep  cut  oi-  toothed.  Flowers 
showy.     Pods  globose.     .Juice  milky. 

Poppy,  Papaver. 

Order  IV.    CRUCIFERJ3. 

Herbs.  Sepals  and  petals  growing  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Usually 
0  stamens,  4  long  and  2  shorter.    Ovary  2-celled,  with  2  united  carpels. 

Pods  short,  triangular;  septum  narrow;  many-seeded.  Flowers  minute, 
white. 

Shepherd's  Purse,  Capsella. 
Pods  long,  tapering,  four-sided,  beaked.     Seeds  globose,  arranged  in  a  row. 
Flowers  yellow. 

Turnip,  Mustard,  Brassica. 
Pods  globose  or  egg-sha])ed.     Seeds  obovate,  Hattened,  arranged    in  two 
rows   in  each   cell.     Leaves   large,  lower   ones    ))innate,  upper   ones  entire. 

Flowers  white. 

Horse  Radish,  Cochlearia. 

Pods  oval  or  elliittical,  flat.  l-.«jee(Ied.  Valves  boat-sliaped.  Leaves  thick, 
large.     Flowers  small,  yellow,  and  in  terminal  ])anicles. 

"Woad,  Isatis. 

Pods  round  or  oval.     Sepals  spreading.     A'alves,  convex,  nerveless.     Seeds 

in  two  rows  iu  each  cell. 

"Water  Cress,  Nasturtium. 

Order  V.    CAPPARIDACE^. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  Flowers  cruciate.  Stamens  6  or  more, 
never  tetradynamous.  Ovary  l-celle*d;  two  placent.T  on  the  wall. 
Leaves  simple,  or  digitate,  spiny. 

Sepals  4.  Petals  4,  alternating  with  the  st'pal>.  Stamens  numerous.  Pistil 
one,  longer  than  the  stamens. 

Caper,  Capparis.      / 


14  SYNOPSIS   OF   ORDERS   AND   GENERA. 

Order  VI.    VIOLACE^. 

Herbs.  Stamens  5,  2  of  them  with  spurs.  Flowers  irregular.  One 
petal  dissimilar,  mostly  prolonged  into  a  hollow  spur.  Ovary  free. 
Fruit,  a  capsule.     Placentae  3,  on  the  wall.     Leaves  alternate. 

Sepals  with  or  without  ears.  Herbs  acaulescent,  or  mth  stems.  Flowers 
white,  blue,  yellow,  or  violet.  Petals  5,  one  of  which  is  broader  thau  the 
others  and  prolonged  into  a  spur. 

Violet,  Viola. 

Order  VII.     BIXINE^. 

Shrubs.  Flowers  usually  regular,  with  many  stamens,  perfect, 
axillary  or  terminal,  solitary  or  fascicled,  racemose  or  panicled. 
Leaves  alternate. 

Sepals  5,  fleshy,  spatulate,  eared,  and  some  multiple  of  5.  Style  thread- 
like.    Fruit  1-celled,  in  a  bristled  pod. 

Annatto,  Bixa. 

Order  VIII.    TERNSTRCEMIACE^. 

Shrubs  and  small  trees.  Leaves  alternate,  simple,  entire,  or 
toothed,  sometimes  with  pellucid  dots.     Flowers  axillary  or  terminal. 

Calyx  5-parted.  Petals,  5  or  more,  united  at  base.  Stamens  numerous, 
distinct,  or  united  at  their  base  into  groups. 

Tea,  Thea. 

Order  IX.     MALVACE^. 

Herbs  and  shi-ubs.  Leaves  alternate,  monadelphous.  Petals  5, 
large,  twisted  in  the  bud.  Calyx  cup-like,  5-toothed.  Involucre 
3-leaved.     Styles  united.     Stigmas  3-5. 

Capsules  3-5-celled,  many-seeded.  Seeds  immersed  in  a  wool-like  sub- 
stance, which  is  the  cotton  of  commerce. 

Cotton,  Gossypium. 

Order  X.    STERCULIACE-a]. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Like  Malvaceae,  except  that  the  anthers  are 
extrorse  and  2-celled.     Capsules  united  into  a  2-5-celled  ovary. 

Leaves  large,  evergreen,  oblanceolate,  alternate.  Calyx  5-parted.  Petals 
5,  cordate.  Strap-shaped  stamens,  united  at  base,  extending  upwards  in  ten 
divisions.  Pistil  thread-like.  Fruit,  in  form  and  size  like  an  ordinary  cucum- 
ber, 5-angled,  warty,  with  20-40  seeds  imbedded  in  pulp. 

Cocoa,  Theobroma. 

Order  XL    TILIACEJE. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Leaves  alternate,  occasionally  opposite ;  simple 
or  palmately  lobed,  coriaceous,  stipulate.     Fruit  2-10-celled. 

Leaves  alternate,  serrate,  stipulate.  Calyx  .5-parted.  Petals  alternating  with 
sepals.  Stamens  two  or  three  times  as  many  as  the  petals.  Flowers  solitarr 
or  in  small  terminal  and  bracteate  cymes. 

Yellow  Jute,  Corchorus. 


APOPETALOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS  AXGIOSPERMS         15 

Oki.kk  XII.     LINAGES. 

Herbs.  Flowers  perfect,  regular  in  teniiiiial  racemes  or  corymbs. 
Ovary  5-4-celled,  or  .spuriously  10-8-cellecl.  Cells  l?-ovuled.  Styles 
:)-5,  free.     Fruit  a  globular  capsule.     Seeds  Hat. 

Leaves  sessile,  eutire,  simple,  alternate,  occasionally  opposite.  Calyx  5- 
parted.     Corolla,  with  5  petals.     Stamens  5.     Styles  5,  alternating. 

Flax,  liinum. 
Sepals  5.     Petals   5,  witli   a   scale   on    the    inner  side  of   base.     Stamens 
10-12.     Leaves  alternate.     Flowers  axillary.     Frnit  a  drupe.     Shrub. 

Coca,  Erythroxylon. 

Order  XIII.    ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 

Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs.  Flowers  perfect,  regular,  or  irregular, 
axillary,  solitary,  or  in  twos.  Fruit  a  loculicidal  capsule,  pentagonal, 
5-celled.     Cells  1-seeded. 

Leaves,  opposite,  pinnate,  stipulate,  sometimes  with  spines.  Calyx  5-parted. 
Petals  5.     Stamens  5-10. 

Lignum- vitae,  Guaiacum. 

Order  XIV.    RUTACE^. 

Small  trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  inferior  or  perigynous  and  fra- 
grant. Sepals  and  petals  imbricate,  4-5  in  number.  Fruit  a  berry. 
Seed  imbedded  in  juicy  pulp. 

Leaves  ovate,  alternate,  frequently  dotted,  tapering  to  a  point  on  a  winged 
petiole.  Calyx  5-sepaled.  Petals  5-10,  white.  Stamens  numerous,  and  some 
multiple  of  5.     Filaments  flat  at  base,  grouped  in  sets. 

Orange,  Lemon,  Citrus. 

Order  XV.    MELIACE^. 

Trees.  Flowers  in  axillary  panicles  or  thjTses.  Inferior.  Sepals 
and  petals  imbricate.  Stamens  united  in  a  tube.  Fruit  pear-shaped, 
woody,  ']  or  4  inches  in  diameter,  5-celled,  5-valved.  Seeds  numerous 
and  winged. 

Leaves  alternate,  compound,  with  4  pairs  of  leaflets,  dark-green,  shining ; 
leaflets  opposite,  entire,  ovate-lanceolate,  unequal  at  base.  Calyx  5-cleft. 
Petals  5.  Stamens  10,  united  into  a  tube  with  10  teeth  inclosing  the  anthers. 
Style  short.     Stigma  5-rayed. 

Mahogany,  Swietenia. 

Order  XVI.     ILICINE^. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  perfect,  small.  Solitary  or  grouped 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  4-b-parted.  Fruit  a  drupaceous  berry, 
bright  red,  small,  smooth. 

Leaves  alternate,  oval,  crenate.  glos.sy,  leathery,  evergreen,  darker  above, 
veined  below.  Calyx  with  4  or  5  teeth.  Corolla  4- or  5-eleft.  wheel-shaped 
Stamens  4  or  .t.  alternating  with  segments  of  corolla. 

Paraguay  Tea,  Ilex. 


16  SYNOPSIS  OF   ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 


Ordek  XVII.    RHAMNACE^. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  small,  in  axillary  clusters,  perfect,  reg- 
ular, parts  4-5,  frequently  without  petals.     Fruit  a  1-seeded  capsule. 

Leaves  opposite  or  alternate.  Calyx  pitcher-shaped,  or  4-5-cleft.  Petals 
notched,  sometimes  wanting.     Yellow  berries. 

Buckthorn,  Rhamnus. 
Leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  serrate,  pubescent  beneath,  alternate  and  stipulate. 
Calyx  a  semi-globular  tube,  with  5  segments.     Petals  clawed,  rolled  in  at  the 
edges.     Stamens  witli  ovate  2-celled  anthers.     Styles  3.     Stigmas  diverging. 
Fruit  3-berried. 

New  Jersey  Tea,   Ceanothus. 

Order  XVIII.    AMPELIDE^. 

A  woody  vine.  Flowers,  in  compound  panicles,  green,  and  opposite 
the  leaves.  Stem  climbing  by  tendrils.  Fruit  globular  or  elliptical,  a 
pulpy  berry,  with  4-5  seeds. 

Leaves  simple,  alternate,  stipuled,  palmately  veined.  Tendrils  opposite 
leaves.     Calyx  small,  5-tootlied.     Petals  5.     Stamens  5.     Stigma  sessile. 

Grape,  Vitis. 

Order  XIX.     SAPINDACE^. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  polygamous  or  dioecious.  Petals  some- 
times wanting.  Ovary  2-lobed  and  2-celled,  2  ovules  in  a  cell,  maturing 
one  seed  in  a  cell.     Fruit  with  2  diverging  wings. 

Leaves  opposite,  lobed.  Lobes  toothed  or  cut.  Calyx  5-parted.  Petals  5 
or  4-12.     Stamens  4-12.     Anthers  2-lobed. 

Maple,  Acer. 

Order  XX.    ANACARDIACE^. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  perfect,  dioecious  or  monoecious,  regular, 
small,  in  spikes  or  panicles.  Ovary  1-celled.  Fruit  a  little  globose 
or  kidney-shaped  drupe. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple  or  compound,  with  8-15  pairs  of  sessile  leaflets  and 
a  terminal  one  whicli  is  petioled,  all  dark  above,  light  below.  Calyx  with  5 
small  persistent  sepals.  Petals  5,  ovate,  spreading.  Stamens  .5-10  or  none. 
Styles  3,  sometimes  united. 

Sumach,  Rhus. 

Leaves  elliptical,  green,  leathery,  alternate,  obcordate,  or  deeply  emarginate. 
Calvx  5-toothed.     Corolla  5-parte(l.     Stamens  5.     Styles  3. 

Cashew  Nut,  Anacardium. 

Order  XXI.     LEGUMINOS^. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  Flowers  regular  or  irregular,  perfect 
(usually  axillary).  Ovary  superior,  single.  Fruit  a  legume.  Seeu 
Hat,  kidney-shaped,  or  globular,  with  large  embryo  and  no  endosperm. 

Leaves  compound,  bluish  green,  with  a])Out  6  leaflets,  and  a  terminal  one. 
Calyx  5  acute  segments.     Petals  5  ;  .standard  roundish,  and  emarginate  ;  keel 


APOPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS.        17 

spurred   on   each  side,  reflexed.      Stameus   10,  generally   united,  or  1   free. 
Style  simple.     Pud  many-seeded. 

Indigo,  Indigofera. 
Leaves  many,  spreading.  Leaflets  in  7-12  pairs.  Calyx  tuljular,  swollen, 
with  5  short,  nearly  ecjual  teeth.  Petals  long-clawed ;  standard  ovate  or 
pandurate  ;  wings  une(|ual,  keel  shorter  than  wings.  Stamens  10,  9  united, 
1  free.  Ovary  sessile.  Ovules  manv,  in  2  series.  Style  straight.  Stigma 
small. 

Gum  Tragacanth,  Astragalus. 
Leaflets  2  pairs.  Calyx  of  staminate  flower,  a  slender  tube.  Limb  2-lipped, 
upper  lij)  4-tootheil.  Corolla  resu]»inate.  Stamens  10,  9  united,  1  al)ortive. 
Pistillate  flowers.  Calyx  and  corolla  none.  Ovary  on  a  peduncle,  lengthening 
downwards,  forcing  the  pollenized  pistil  under  ground.  Legume  usually  with 
'2  ovoid  seeds. 

Peanut,  Arachis. 
Stem  weak.     Leaves  of  several  pairs  of  oblong  leaflets,  with  a  branched 
tendril.     Flowers  in  a  raceme.     Pods  short,  broad.     Seeds  lens-shaped. 

Lentil,  Lens. 
Leaves  in  2-3  jjairs,  of  elliptical,  entire,  obtuse,  mucronate  leaflets,  stalk 
terminating  in  long  branched  tendrils.     Stipules  large.     Calyx  free,  leafy 
segments,  2  shorter.     Petals  5,  upper  one  broad,  and  turned  back.      Stameus 
10,  9  united,  1  free.     Pods  oblong.     Seeds  globular. 

Pea,  Pisum. 

Leaves  trifoliate.  Flowers  white  in  racemes.  Calyx  with  two  bracts  at 
base,  bell-shaped,  2-li])ped,  upper  lip  bifid.  Corolla  with  a  beaked  keel,  which 
with  the  stamens  and  style  is  spirally  twisted.  Pods  linear,  curved,  flat  or 
cylindric.     Seed  kidney-shaped. 

Bean,  Phaseolus. 
Leaves  imparipinnate.     Anther  cells  confluent.     Pods  prickly,  short,  almost 
indehiscent. 

Liquorice,  Glyccyrhiza. 
Leaves  in  4  or  .5  pairs  of  irregular  obcordate  leaflets.     Flowers  in  terminal 
spikes.      Calyx  cup-shaped,   hemispherical.      Sepals  5,    imbricated.   'Corolla 
papilionaceous.      Stameus  10,  5  shorter.      Ovary  free,  2-ovuled.      Pods  fur- 
nished with  lauce-shaped,  flattened  beans. 

Logwood,  Haematoxylon. 
Leaves  alternate,  in  4-6  pairs  of  leaflets.      Sepals  barely  united  at  base. 
Petals  5,  unequal.     Stamens  .5-10,  some  imperfect.     Pods  many-seeded,  with 
cross  partitions.     Flowers  yellow. 

Senna,  Cassia. 
Calyx  5  segments.    Petals  0.    Stamens  5.    Anther  pods  opening  lengthwise. 
Styles  short.     Stigma  peltate.     Leaves  abruptly  pinnate.     Sti])ules  minute  or 
0.     Flowers  in  short  racemes. 

Carob  Tree,  Ceratonia. 
Leaves   unecjually    pinnate    or  solitary.     Flowers   papilionaceous,    white. 
Calyx  unecpially    .'i-toothed ;   standard   obovate   or  orbicular,   wings   oblong 
'  I'uit.     Stamens  10  or  9-bifid-didymous.     Ovary  stipitate.     Ovules  2  or  more. 
Pods  oblong  linear,  flat,  thin. 

Rosewood,  Dalbergia. 
Leaves  bipinnate.      Calyx  tube  short ;  5  segments.     Petals  5,  orbiculatc. 
Stamens  10.     Seeds  transverse. 

Brazil  Wood,  Caesalpinia. 
Pr.  Fl.  — 3  ^ 


18        SYNOPSIS  OF  ORDERS  AND  GENERA. 

Leaves  alternate,  stipules  falling;  8-16  pairs  of  leaflets,  small,  crowded 
oblong,  blunt,  unequal.  Calyx  funnel-sliaped,  segments  ovate,  lance-shaped, 
acute.  Petals  3,  1  posterior,  2  lateral,  yellowish-white,  with  red  veins. 
Stamens  3,  filaments  long  and  free.  Ovary  stalked,  1 -celled.  Ovules  many. 
Style  long  and  hooked.  Pods  long,  flat,  broad,  curved,  three  strong  woody 
fibers  extending  from  end  to  end,  along  the  pulp  with  which  the  pod  is  filled. 
Seeds  2-8,  Large,  flat. 

Tamarind,  Tamarindus. 

Leaves  alternate  or  fascicled,  bipinnate,  rhachis  slender,  tomentose,  ending 
in  a  gland  with  one  also  at  the  base.  Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous,  small, 
in  heads  or  spikes.  Calyx  4-5-toothed.  Petals  united  below.  Stamens  free, 
or  united  below,  many  longer  than  petals.  Style  thread-like.  Pods  2-valved, 
sometimes  indehiscent,  flat,  or  cyliudric.     Seeds  many,  flat. 

Gum  Arabic,  Acacia. 

Order  XXII.     ROSACEA. 

Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs.  Flowers  perfect,  regular,  terminal,  soli- 
tary, cymose,  or  in  umbels.  Sepals  5  or  less,  united.  Petals  5  or  0. 
Stamens  many,  in  series,  free  or  cohering,  inserted  with  the  sepals 
on  the  disk.  Seeds  1  or  few  in  each  carpel.  Leaves  alternate  and 
stipulate. 

Leaves  compound,  of  1-2  pairs  of  leaflets  and  a  terminal  one,  blunt  at 
base,  sharp  at  apex,  white  or  glaucous  below,  darker  above.  Calyx  and 
corolla  5-parted.  Stamens  many.  Ovaries  many.  Akenes  little  drupes, 
pulpy,  aggregated  on  a  succulent  receptacle. 

Raspberry,  Rubus. 

Leaves  on  long  radical  petioles,  trifoliate,  pubescent,  dentate,  lateral  leaf- 
lets oblique,  nearly  sessile.  Flowers  in  cymes,  stalk  hairy.  Calyx  concave, 
deeply  cleft.  Sepals  5,  with  5  alternate  bractlets.  Petals  obcordate,  white, 
large.  Stamens  many.  Styles  numerous,  akenes  naked  on  the  surface  of  a 
suhglolrular,  heart-sliaped,  pulpy,  edible  receptacle. 

Strawberry,  Fragaria. 

Leaves  3-5-foliate.  Stipules  subulate.  Leaflets  ovate  or  oblong-lanceolate, 
villous  beneath,  petioles  and  midrib  aculeate.  Flowers  in  a  raceme,  white. 
Fruit  ovoid,  oblong,  or  cylindric,  changing  from  green  to  red  and  black  when 
ripe. 

Blackberry,  Rubus. 

Leaves  oblong,  linear  or  lanceolate,  tapering  to  the  base,  serrate  and  glal)rous. 
Flowers  solitary  or  in  twos  or  threes,  appearing  before  the  leaves.  Fruit  a 
smooth  drupe.     Stone  smooth,  flattened. 

Plum,  Prunus. 

Leaves  conduplicate  in  the  bud.  Flowers  with  the  leaves,  in  racemes  or 
umbels.     Fruit  smooth,  globular.     Stone  smooth,  globular. 

Cherry,  Prunus. 
Leaves  convolute.    Flowers  solitary  or  in  pairs.    Fruit  a  drupe,  soft,  velvety. 
Stone  smooth,  and  flattened. 

Apricot,  Prunvis. 

Leaves  as  above.  Flowers  solitary,  rose-colored.  Fruit  a  tomentose  drupe. 
Stone  flattened  and  corrugated,  or  wrinkled. 

Peach,  Prunus. 


APOPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS.        19 

Leaves  conduplicate,  appearing  after  the  flowers.  Fruit  a  tomeutose  drupe. 
Stone  furrowed  and  flattened. 

Almond,  Prunus. 

Leaves  ovate,  serrate,  acute,  crenate,  woolly  underneath,  glabrou.s  above. 
Flowers  in  corymbs,  roseate,  appearing  with  the  leaves.  Fruit  a  fleshy  pome. 
Carpels  5  or  2,  inclosed  in  the  fleshy  calyx-tube. 

Apple,  Pear,  Pyrus. 

Leaves  oblong  or  broad,  ovate,  blunt  at  base  and  sharp  at  apex.  Seeds  5  or 
more. 

Quince,  Pyrus. 

Order  XXIII.    SAXIFRAGACEiE. 

Shrubs  and  herb.s.  Flowers  perfect,  regular.  Sepals,  petals,  and 
stamens  4-5.  Stamens  alternating  with  petals.  Leaves  alternate  or 
opposite.     Fruit  capsular  or  berry-shaped. 

Leaves  3-5-lobed,  smooth  above,  pubescent  below,  unequally  toothed. 
Flowers  in  pendent  racemes.  Calyx  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  5-toothed. 
Petals  5.     Stamens  5,  alternating  with  petals.     Fruit  a  many-seeded  berry. 

Currant,  Ribes. 
Leaves  as  above,  villose.     Flowers  solitary  or  in  twos.     Fruit  a  globular  or 
ellipsoidal  many-seeded  berry. 

Gooseberry,  Ribes. 

Order  XXIV.    COMBRETACE^. 

Shrubs  and  trees.  Flowers  perfect,  or  imperfect  by  arrest,  in 
axillary  or  terminal  spikes,  or  racemes.  A  bract  to  each  flower,  also 
two  lateral  opposite  bractlets.     Leaves  alternate  or  opposite. 

Leaves  simple.  Calyx  tube  cylindric,  adhering  to  ovary  limb,  l)ell-shaped, 
4-5-toothed.  Corolla  0.  Stamens  10,  on  the  calyx.  Ovary  inferior.  Fruit 
a  drupe,  size  of  a  prune. 

Myrobalans,  Terminalia. 

Order  XXV.     MYRTACE^. 

Trees.  Flowers  perfect,  superior,  regular,  axillary  or  in  spikes, 
cymes,  corymbs,  or  panicles.  Stamens  numerous.  Leaves  opposite 
or  whorled,  entire,  exstipulate.  Fruit  a  berry  or  capsule,  2-  or  more- 
celled,  1-many-seeded.  The  Periwinkle  (Vinca)  of  Apocynacefe  is 
often  incorrectly  called  myrtle. 

Leaves  opposite,  with  punctured  spots,  ovate,  lanceolate,  evergreen.  Calyx 
4-6-parted,  tube  attached  to  ovary.  Petals  4-6,  together  with  the  many  sta- 
mens inserted  in  the  neck  of  the  calyx.  Filaments  free.  Style  solitary.  Seeds 
on  a  central  column. 

Myrtle,  Myrtus. 

Leaves  opposite,  entire,  dotted  with  pellucid  spots.  Calyx  4-r)-partod.  Petals 
4-5,  free  or  united.  Stamens  numerous,  on  tlie  throat  of  the  calyx.  Flowers 
in  cymes,  or  cyme-like  ])anicles,  2-bracted,  white  or  purple.  Fruit  olive- 
shaped,  but  smaller.     Seed  solitary. 

Cloves,  Eugenia. 


20  SYNOPSIS  OF  ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 

Leaves  opposite,  evergreen,  lanceolate,  blunt,  prominently  veined.  Calyx 
and  corolla  5-parted.  Stamens  numerous.  Style  simple.  Fruit  a  berry,  with 
2  or  more  cells. 

Allspice,  Eugenia. 

Leaves  2-3  feet  long,  broad,  leathery,  and  prominently  veined  beneath. 
Calyx  4-parted.  Corolla  composed  of  4  fleshy  petals.  Stamens  united  at  base 
in  5  concentric  circles.  Filaments  short.  Stigma  sessile,  and  cruciform. 
Ovary  inferior  4-5-celled.  Flowers  in  terminal  panicles.  Fruit  3-5  inches  in 
diameter,  globular.     Nuts  numerous,  obovoid,  triangular. 

Brazil  Nut,  Bertholletia. 

Order  XXVI.    LYTHRACE^. 

Tropical  trees.  Flowers  perfect,  symmetrical,  calyx  inclosing  ovary, 
but  free.     Leaves  mostly  opposite,  entire.     Fruit  hard.     Seeds  many. 

Leaves  opposite,  or  fascicled,  on  short  stalks.  Calyx  large,  broadly  tubular, 
thick  and  leathery.  Lobes  5-7,  triangular,  acute,  smooth,  valvate.  Petals 
5-7  on  the  calyx,  spreading,  imbricated,  crumpled,  crimson.  Stamens  many 
on  the  calyx  tube  beneath  the  petals.     Style  tapering.     Stigma  simple. 

Pomegranate,  Punica. 

Order  XXVII.     CUCURBITACE^. 

Herbs.  Weak,  long  prostrate  stems,  creeping  over  ground.  Flowers 
monoecious  or  dioBcious,  seldom  perfect,  solitary  or  fascicled,  white  or 
yellow,  bell-shaped. 

Leaves  large,  angularly  lobed.  Calyx  tubular,  bell-shaped,  with  5  long 
teeth.  Petals  5,  attached  to  calyx.  Stamens  5,  in  3  groups.  Stigmas  3. 
Fruit  cylindrical,  many-seeded.     Seeds  whitish,  flat. 

Cucumber,  Cucumis. 

Leaves  heart-shaped  or  reniform,  3-5  inches  long.  Flowers  as  above. 
Fruit  globular,  sometimes  a  prolate  spheroid,  but  usually  flattened  at  the 
poles,  and  ribbed.     Seeds  many,  flat. 

Muskmelon,  Cucumis. 
Leaves  3-6  inches  long,  loted.     Lobes  pinnately  divided,  glaucous  beneath. 
Calyx,  corolla,   and  stamens  as  above.      Fruit  globular,   or   shaped  like  a 
prolate  spheroid,  6  inches  to  2  feet  in  length,  and  6-15  inches  in  diameter. 
Seeds  many,  flat. 

"Watermelon,  CitruUus. 
Leaves   5-angled,  heart-shaped.      Calyx,   corolla,  and   stamens   as   above. 
Fruit  wheel-shaped,  and  dished  about  the  stem,  convex  on  the  opposite  side. 

Squash,  Cucurbita. 
Leaves  broad,  heart-shaped,  or  reniform.     Calyx  egg-shaped.     Corolla  bell- 
shaped.     Petals  united  half  way.    Flowers  monoecious,  axillary.    Fruit  globu- 
lar, flattened,  or  prolonged  at  the  poles.     Seeds  many,  flat. 

Pumpkin,  Cucurbita. 

Order  XXVIII.    UMBELLIFER^. 

Herbs.  Flowers  small,  5-parted,  superior  in  simple  or  compound 
umbels.  Calyx  lobes  minute.  Ovary  2-celled.  Fruit,  2  dry  inde- 
hiscent  akenes,  each  akene  with  5  primary,  and  often  4  secondary 
ribs. 


SYMPETALOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS.        21 

Leaves  pinnate  or  serrate.     Calyx  teetli  0.     Petals  white,  base  of  style  flat. 
Carpels  nearly  straight ;  umbels  opposite  leaves. 

Celery,  Apium. 
Leaves  decompound.     Calyx  teeth  0.     Petals  white.     Carpophore  2-cleft. 
Bracts  of  involucre  few,  small  or  0. 

Anise,  Pimpinella. 
Leaves  triangular  in  outline,  3-4  times  pinnate,  divisions  bristly  ;  foot-stalks 
short  and  clasping.    *-Elowers  bright  yellow ;  pedicels  short ;  umbels  large, 
10-30  rayed.    Involucre  0.    Calyx,  limb  indistinct.    Petals  roundish,  obovate, 
entire,  truncate. 

Fennel,  Foeniculum. 

Leaves  decompound  near  tlie  root,  numerous  on  the  stem,  alternate  ;  lower 

ones  bipinuate,  sheathing.     Sheaths  larger  near  the  middle  of  stem.     Calyx 

entire,  or  barely  toothed.     Petals  broad,  acuminate,  sliort,  and  turned  in. 

Fruit  orbicular  or  egg-shaped.     Flowers  yellow,  common.     Involucre  falling. 

Asafoetida,  Ferula. 
Leaves  pinnate,  stem  channelled.     Flowers  yellow.     Fruit  flattened.     Base 
of  style  flat. 

Parsnip,  Peucedanum. 
Secondary  ribs  most  prominent.     Flowers  white.     Fruit  glol)ose.     No  pri- 
mary involucre,  bracts  of  secondary  involucre  thread-like. 

Coriander,  Coriandrum, 
Leaves  long-stalked  and  clasping  below,  sessile  above,  ternately  divided. 
Calyx  teeth  bristle-like,  outer  ones  longer.  Petals  deeply  2-lobed.  Style 
short,  erect.  Flowers  white  or  rose-colored,  few ;  umbels  stalked,  irregular, 
few-rayed.  General  involucre  composed  of  a  few  long,  spreading,  and  de- 
flexed  narrow,  stiff,  3-parted,  or  entire  bracts.     Involucels  2-4;  small  bracts. 

Cumin,  Cuminum. 
Fruit  oblong  ovate,  bristly.     Bracts  of  involucre  dissected. 

Carrot,  Caucus. 
Leaves  pinnate.    l*etals  white,  notched.    Base  of  style  conical.    Carpophore 
2-cleft.    Fruit  oblong  ovate. 

Parsley,  Carum. 

Sympetalcp. 

Order  XXIX.    RUBIACE^. 

Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs.  Flowers  perfect,  seldom  unisexual,  mostly 
regular.  Calyx  tubular,  4-5-toothed  or  0.  Petals  united,  limb  4-5- 
parted,  valvate  in  the  bud.  Stamens  4-5  on  tube  of  corolla.  Ovary- 
inferior.     Style  simple.     Leaves  opposite  or  whorled. 

Leaves  opposite,  ellii)tical,  entire,  smooth  above,  hairy  beneatli.  Calyx 
cup-shaped,  5-toothed.  Corolla  tubular,  limb  5-parted.  Stamens  epipetalous 
Pistil  divided  at  top.  Cap.^ule  2-celled,  opening  at  base.  Flowers  panicled 
and  pinkish.     Fruit  winged. 

Peruvian  Bark,  Cinchona. 

Leaves  elliptical,  lanceolate,  crenate,  or  wavy,  opposite  and  evergreen. 
Calyx  tubular,  5-toothed.  Corolla  funnel-shaped,  liml)  divided  into  .5  reflexed 
lanceolate  divisions.  Flowers  white,  in  axillary,  nearly  sessile  clusters.  Fruit 
a  dark-red  berry,  cherry-shaped.  Seeds  imbedded  in  a  glutinous  pulp,  2  in 
number,  plano-convex,  grooved  on  the  longer  axis  of  the  plane. 

Coffee,  Coffea. 


22  SYNOPSIS   OF   ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 

Leaves  opposite,  6  in  number,  oblong,  obovate,  acute,  entire,  4-6  inches 
long,  1-2  wide,  rough  above,  downy  and  veined  below.  Stipules  clasping, 
much  divided.  Calyx  bell-shaped,  toothed.  Corolla  tubular,  inflated  at  throat, 
5-parted.  Stamens  5,  stigma  bifid.  Flowers  in  a  head,  enveloped  in  .5  leaves. 
Berry  2-seeded. 

Ipecacuanha,  Cephaelis. 

Stems  weak,  4-augled,  trailing  and  clambering.  Leaves  in  whorls  of  6, 
lanceolate,  midrib  and  margins  aculeate.  Calyx  tube  egg-shaped,  5-toothed. 
Corolla  rotate,  5-parted.  Stamens  .5,  short.  Styles  2,  united  at  l)ase.  Fruit 
berry-like,  in  twos,  subglobular.  Flowers  brownish-yellow,  terminal,  in 
twos. 

Madder,  Rubia. 

Order  XXX.     C0MP0SIT.a3. 

Herbs.  Flowers  collected  into  dense  heads  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volucre. Calyx  tube  attached  to  the  ovary.  Limb  consisting  of  bristles 
(pappus),  awns,  or  scales,  or  a  cup.  Corolla  tubular  or  funnel-shaped, 
lobed  or  strap-like.  Stamens  equal  to  lobes  of  corolla,  usually  5. 
Style  bifid  at  top.  Ovary  1-celled,  1-ovuled.  Fruit  an  akene.  Herb 
with  stout  stem. 

Leaves  alternate,  clasping  above,  petioled  near  the  root.  Ovate,  rough, 
downy  underneath,  very  large,  2  feet  long,  serrate,  midrib  large.  Heads 
large,  involucre  imbricated,  outer  scales  leaf-like.  Ray  flowers,  pistillate, 
yellow.     Disk  flowers  perfect. 

Elecampane,  Inula. 

Stems,  6  to  12  inches  high,  perennial.  Leaves  1-2  inches  long,  sessile 
divisions  linear.  Flower-heads  terminal,  on  long  axillary  pedicels.  Rays 
white.  Floral  envelope  hemispherical.  Rays  many  and  pistillate.  Recep- 
tacle convex. 

Camomile,  Anthemis. 

Stems  18  inches  high.  Leaves  smooth,  bipinnate.  Segments  of  pinnae 
acute.  Ray  florets  20-30  pale  pink,  ligulate  nerved  and  3-toothed.  Disk 
florets  numerous,  4-5-toothed.     Receptacle  flat  or  convex.     Scales  short. 

Chrysanthemum,  Chrysanthemum. 

Stems  2  to  3  feet  high,  strong,  angular,  and  branched.  Leaves  alter 
nate,  clasping,  bipinnate.  Segments  oblong,  cut,  and  serrate.  Heads  in 
corymbose  cymes.  Staminate  flowers  in  the  central  part  of  the  pistillate,  with 
a  tubular  3-5 -toothed  corolla.     Seed-vessel  ribbed,  3-5  ridges. 

Tansy,  Tanacetum. 

Stems  3  to  4  feet  high,  smooth,  much  branched.  Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate, 
sessile,  and  subclasping.  Teeth  armed  with  sharp  spines.  Flowers  orange- 
colored.     Heads  discoid,  involucre  imbricated,  outer  bracts  leaf-like.     Florets 

tubular,  perfect. 

Safiaower,  Carthamus. 

Order  XXXI.    CAMPANULACE^. 

Herb  varying  from  8  inches  to  2  feet  high,  simple  or  liranched,  pubescent. 
Leaves  alternate,  ovate,  or  lanceolate,  irregularly  toothed.  Flowers  blue,  red, 
or  white.     Pods  inflated. 

Indiar  Tobacco,  Lobelia. 


SYMPETALOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS   AXGIOSPERMS.        23 

Order  XXXIL     VACCINIACE^. 

Shrill),  1  to  8  feet  high,  branching.  Leaves  alternate.  Plovvers  white  or 
reddish,  small,  in  lateral  bracted  racemes.  Calyx  adherent,  5-toothed.  Fruit 
a  black  or  dark-blue  berry,  globular,  10-celled,  10-seeded. 

Huckleberry,  Gaylussacia. 
Herb,  stem  slender,  1   to  5  feet  in  length,  prostrate,  throwing  up  assurgent 
branches.     Leaves  one  half  an  inch  long,  elliptical.     Calyx  4-parted  ;  anthers 
twice  as  long  as  filaments.    Fruit  a  berry,  varying  from  bell-shape  to  globular. 

Cranberry,  Oxycoccus. 

Order  XXXIII.     SAPOTACE^. 

Tree,  60  to  70  feet  high,  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  alternate,  stipules 
falling ;  petioles  long,  stout,  thickened  at  base ;  blade  obovate  oblong, 
leathery,  clothed  beneath  with  rusty  yellow  short  woolly  pubescence.  Flowers 
axillary,  stalked. 

Gutta  Percha,  Dichopsis. 

Order  XXXIV.    EBENACE^. 

Tree,  30  to  50  feet  high,  10  to  18  inches  in  diameter.  Leaves  elliptical, 
bluntly  acuminate,  entire,  dark-green,  paler  underneath.  Flowers  dioecious 
and  polygamous,  4-6-lobed.  Corolla  bel]-shai)ed,  4-6-parted,  rolled  together 
in  the  bud.  Stamens  4-8  or  numerous.  Calyx  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter, 
fleshy  and  persistent.     Fruit  globular,  4-8-celled,  8-12-seeded. 

Persimmon,  Ebony,  Diospyros. 

Order  XXXV.    OLEACE.^. 

Small  tree,  20  to  30  feet  in  height,  much  branched.  Leaves  lanceolate,  entire, 
deep-green  above,  light,  hoary,  beneath,  and  evergreen.  Flowers  axillary,  in 
short  compact  racemes.  Small  and  white  calyx,  short,  4-toothed,  persistent. 
Tube  of  corolla  short,  limb  4-parted.     Fruit  a  fleshy  oily  drupe. 

Olive,  Olea. 

Order  XXXVI.     LOGANIACE^. 

Small  tree,  20  to  30  feet  high.  Bark  smooth,  gray,  much  branched  ;  branches 
swollen  or  knotted  at  the  nodes.  Leaves  5-nerved,  with  2  ribs  each,  side  of 
midrib  extending  from  base  to  apex ;  oA^ate  pointed.  Calyx  somewhat  bell- 
shaped,  with  4  lobes  which  just  meet.  Stamens  4  or  5  on  the  corolla.  Filaments 
short,  attached  to  the  back  of  the  antliers.  Fruit  globular,  size  of  a  medium- 
sized  orange,  rind  hard,  smooth,  yellow,  inclosing  a  fleshy  pulp  in  which  are 
imbedded  a  numl)er  of  flat  circular  seeds,  concave  on  one  side  and  convex  on 
the  other,  an  inch  in  diameter  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  Wood  hard 
and  bitter. 

Nux  Vomica,  Strychnos. 

Order  XXXVII.     BORRAGINACE^. 

Herb,  4  feet  high,  l)ranching  near  the  top.  Leaves  large,  coarse,  pctioled, 
lower  ones  broad,  lanceolate.  Flowers  in  terminal  racemes.  Calyx  5-parted. 
Corolla  tubular,  bell-shaped. 

Comfrey,  Symphytum. 


24  SYNOPSIS  OF  ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 


Order  XXXVIII.    CONVOLVULACE^. 

Herb,  stem  trailing.  Calyx  5-parted.  Corolla  bell-shaped ;  limb  spreading. 
Stamens  5  within  the  tube.  Style  simple.  Stigma  capitate,  2-lobed.  Capsule 
4-celled,  4-valved,  4-seeded.     Juice  milky. 

Sweet  Potato,  Ipomoea. 

Order  XXXIX.    SOLANACE^. 

Herb.  Calyx  5-6-parted.  Corolla  rotate,  tube  short.  Stamens  5-6,  ex- 
serted.     Anthers  connate,  dehiscing  lengthwise.     Berry  many-seeded. 

Tomato,  Lycopersicum. 
Herb.     Calyx  urn-shaped,  5-toothed.     Corolla  funnel-shaped,  5-lobed.     Sta- 
mens 5.     Capsules  2-celled,  2-4-valved.     Flowers  terminal. 

Tobacco,  Nicotiana. 
Herb,  2  to  5  feet  high,  3-forked.     Leaves  in  pairs,  unequal,  entire,  pointed. 
Petioles  short,  8-12  inches  long.     Flowers  large,  axillary,  pendent,  brownish 
purple.     Calyx  leafy,  5-parted.     Corolla  bell-shaped,  5-cleft.     Stamens  shorter 
than  the  corolla.     Fruit  a  berry,  globular,  2-celled,  black  when  ripe. 

Deadly  Nightshade,  Atropa. 
Herb,  18  to  30  inches  high,  smooth,  branching.     Leaves  ovate,  smooth, 
entire.    Flowers  solitary,  axillary,  white.    Calyx  tubular,  with  5  small  divisions. 
Corolla  wheel-shaped,  in  5  lapping  pointed  divisions.     Fruit  a  berry,  with  an 
inflated  pericarp,  globose,  conical,  or  oblong,  solitary  or  in  pairs. 

Red  Pepper,  Cayenne  Pepper,  Capsicum. 
Herb,  erect,  prostrate,  or  assurgent.  Stem  2-4  feet  long,  angular,  and 
branched  towards  the  top.  Leaves  interruptedly  pinnate,  every  alternate  pair 
of  leaflets  very  small.  Flowers  blue  or  white.  Calyx  persistent,  5-parted. 
Corolla  rotate,  bell-shaped,  tube  short ;  limb  5-cleft.  Anthers  connivent.  Fruit 
a  globular  berry,  2-celled,  many-seeded,  roots  swelling  into  tubers. 

Potato,  Solanum 

Order  XL.    PEDALINE^. 

Herb.  Leaves  opposite  or  alternate,  simple  exstipulate.  Flowers  perfect, 
irregular,  axillary,  solitary,  racemed  or  spiked,  usually  with  two  bracts. 
Calyx  5-lobed,  sometimes  split  on  one  side.  Corolla  sympetalous.  Tube 
cylindrical.  Stamens  5  on  the  corolla,  1  sterile,  4  fertile  ones  didymous. 
Ovary  superior,  1-2-4-celled.     Fruit  a  drupe. 

Sesame,  Sesamum. 

Order  XLI.     VERBENACE^. 

Tree,  80  to  150  feet  high,  3  to  6  feet  in  diameter,  branchlets  4-sided.  Leaves 
opposite  on  ternate  verticils,  rough  above,  doAvny  beneath,  entire.  1-2  feet 
long,  6-18  inches  wide.  Flowers  small,  sessile,  white,  in  terminal  compound 
dichotomous  panicles.  Fruit  lens-shaped,  4-celled  drupe.  Calyx  bell-shaped, 
short,  5-6-cleft.  Tube  swollen  below,  contracted  near  the  mouth.  Corolla 
tube  short,  limb  gaping,  5-6-cleft,  lobes  short.  vStamens  5-6,  attached  to 
corolla  near  the  ba.se. 

Teak,  Tectona. 

Order  XLII.     LABIATE. 

Herb,  15  to  20  inches  high  or  more,  branching  near  the  ground.  Leaves 
crowded  near  base  of  branches,  whitish,  downy,  oblanceolate,  tapering  to  the 


SYMPETALOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS   ANGIOSPERMS.        25 

base,  sessile,  revolute,  upper  ones  narrow.  Flowers  in  an  interrupted  spike. 
Calyx  spindle-shaped,  13-15  strife,  5-tootlied,  upper  tootli  largest.  Corolla 
tube  exserted,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower  one  3-lobed.  Stamens  shorter  than 
corolla. 

Lavender,  Lavandula. 

Herb,  12  to  20  inches  high,  from  a  creeping  root.  Leaves  opposite,  wrinkled, 
sub-sessile,  lanceolate  acute,  cut  serrate.  Bracts  narrow,  lanceolate,  bristly. 
Flowers  in  verticils,  small,  crowded,  short-stalked.  Calyx  5-toothed.  Corolla 
4-cleft,  a  little  longer  than  calyx.  Whole  plant  possesses  a  strong,  agree- 
able odor. 

Spearmint,  Pennyroyal,  Mentha. 

Herb,  1  to  2  feet  high,  hairy,  purple,  leafy,  and  branched  above.  Leaves 
opposite,  nearly  entire,  sprinkled  with  resinous  dots.  Flowers  in  a  terminal 
3-forked  panicle,  in  globular  compact  heads.  Calyx  egg-shaped,  obscurely 
13-nerved,  5-toothed,  throat  hairy.  Corolla  2-lipped,  upper  one  notched,  lower 
longer,  3-lobed.     Stamens  4,  ascending  and  spreading. 

Marjoram,  Origanum. 

Herb,  12  inches  high,  slender,  woody  branches.  Leaves  sessile,  linear- 
lanceolate  or  ovate,  revolute,  hoary  beneath.  Flowers  small,  purple,  in  ter- 
minal globose  heads.  Calyx  bilabiate,  10-13  strite,  5-toothed,  3  upper  teeth 
short,  lower  pair  linear.  Corolla  2-lipped,  upper  lip  notched,  loAter  one 
3-lobed,  middle  one  sometimes  larger.     Stamens  4,  exserted. 

Sweet  Thyme,  Thymus. 

Herb,  1  to  2  feet  high,  woody.  Leaves  elliptical,  wrinkled,  crenulate.  Flowers 
in  two  opposite  sets  of  10-12  flowers.  Calyx  striate,  2-lipped,  upper  lip  3- 
toothed  or  entire,  lower  one  bifid.  Corolla  2-lipped,  gaping,  sometimes  notched, 
lower  one  3-lobed.  The  cross  filament  has  a  perfect  half-anther  on  one  end 
and  a  defective  half-anther  on  the  other. 

Sage,  Salvia. 

Shrub,  4  feet  high,  much  branched,  hairy  branchlets  4-sided  and  downy. 
Leaves  opposite,  an  inch  long,  narrow,  linear,  obtuse,  entire,  revolute,  dark- 
green  above,  smooth  and  shiny,  woolly,  veined,  and  silvery  l)eneath.  Flowers 
axillary  and  terminal,  blue.  Calyx  bell-shaped,  a  little  flattened,  2-lipped, 
upper  lip  minutely  3-toothed.  Corolla  gaping,  downy,  pale-blue,  variegated 
with  purj)le  and  white,  tube  longer  than  calyx  ;  upper  lip  bifid,  lower  one  slit 
into  3  segments,  middle  segment  larger.     Four  nutlets  at  bottom  of  calyx. 

Rosemary,  Rosmarinus. 

Herb,  3  feet  high,  square,  branched,  hoary.  Leaves  cordate,  crenate, 
toothed,  and  petioled,  hoary.  Flowers  in  large  hoary  spikes,  whorled,  white 
or  purplish.  Calyx  cylindrical,  5-toothed,  marked  with  15  strire.  Corolla 
slender  below,  swollen  in  the  throat,  upper  lip  emarginate,  lower  one  spread 
ing;  3-lobed,  middle  lobe  largest,  crenate,  marked  with  crimson  dots.  AVhole 
plant  giving  off  a  pleasant  odor. 

Catnip,  Nepeta. 

Herb,  12  to  18  inches  in  height,  many  stems  from  same  root,  whole  plant 
hoary.  Leaves  ovate,  rounded  at  base,  crenate,  toothed,  wrinkled,  and  woolly. 
P^lowers  white,  se.ssile,  in  den.se  globose  verticils.  Calyx  tubular,  woolly, 
5-10-toothed,  with  a  corresponding  luimber  of  stria\  Corolla  2-lip])ed.  upper 
lip  erect,  sometimes  divided ;  lower  one  spreading,  3-lobed ;  middle  lobe 
largest  and  notched. 

Hoarhcund,  Marrubium. 


26  SYNOPSIS  OF   ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 

Apetalce. 

Order  XLIII.    CHENOPODIACE^. 

Herb,  2  to  5  feet  high,  angled  and  branched.  Leaves  alternate,  6-15  inches 
long,  4  to  8  inches  wide,  upper  ones  smaller ;  dingy  copper-color  to  dark-pur- 
ple ;  ovate  lanceolate  or  spatulate.  Flowers  greenish-white  in  slender  spikes, 
arranged  in  leafy  panicles.  Calyx  hollow  and  contracted  at  the  mouth,  5-cleft, 
persistent,  becoming  hardened  at  the  base.  Stamens  5.  Stigmas  2.  Seeds 
rugose  or  wrinkled.     Root  conical  or  napiform. 

Beet,  Beta. 

Herb,  18  to  24  inches  high,  slightly  branched  or  simple.  Leaves  alternate, 
petioled,  3-5  inches  long,  frequently  hastate  and  lanceolate.  Flowers  dicecious, 
bractless,  axillary,  clustered,  staminate  flowers  with  a  4-5-parted  calyx.  Calyx 
of  the  fertile  flower  tubular,  swelled  in  the  middle,  3-toothed.  Ovary  egg- 
shaped,  1 -celled,  1-ovuled,  with  4  lengthened  stigmas.  Fruit  1-seeded,  included 
within  the  hardened  2-4-horned  calyx.     Seeds  flattened. 

Spinach,  Spinacia. 

Order  XLIV.    POLYGONACE-ffi. 

Herb,  I  to  3  feet  high,  furrowed,  stout,  and  hollow.  Leaves  cordate,  trian- 
gular, or  hastate.  Flowers  in  terminal  and  axillary  racemes,  rose-colored  or 
white.  Calyx  composed  of  5  colored,  equal  sepals.  Stamens  8.  Styles  3. 
Fruit  with  three  triangular  faces. 

Buckwheat,  Fagopyrum. 

Herb,  4  feet  high,  furrowed,  stout,  hollow.  Leaves  stipulate,  large,  sheath- 
ing, entire,  cordate,  smooth,  upper  leaves  smaller.  Flowers  in  racemose,  panicu- 
late fascicles.  Calyx  colored.  Sepals  6,  in  double  series,  persistent.  Stamens  9. 
Akenes  3-angled,  edges  winged.     Root  large,  fleshy,  yellow  within. 

E-hubarb,  Rheum. 

Order  XLV.    PIPERACE^. 

Shrub,  5  to  8  feet  long,  climbing,  nodes  swollen.  Leaves  opposite,  ovate, 
cordate,  uneven  at  base,  leathery,  glossy  above,  5-7-nerved,  5  inches  long. 
Flowers  without  perianth.  Stamens  2-4  or  5.  Ovary  1 -celled.  Stigmas  2-5. 
Fruit  a  small  berry,  globular  or  egg-shaped.     Tropical  and  subtropical. 

Pepper,  Piper. 

Order  XLVL    MYRISTICACE^. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  Juice  astringent,  turning  red  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
Leaves  alternate,  coriaceous,  simple,  entire,  penninerved,  clothed  with  hairs 
or  scales.  Flowers  dicecious,  axillary,  inconspicuous,  white  or  yellow,  in 
racemes,  panicles,  or  heads,  with  a  solitary  bract.  Staminate  flowers  with  3- 
1 5  stamens,  monadelphous,  filaments  united  into  a  column.  Pistillate  flowers 
with  a  solitary  carpel.  Seed-vessel  fleshy.  Seed  enveloped  in  a  laciniate 
aromatic  aril. 

Nutmeg,  Myristica. 

Order  XLVIL     LAURACEJE. 

Tree,  30  to  80  feet  high,  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  alternate,  bright- 
green  above,  glaucous  beneath,  evergreen,  thick.     Flowers  small,  in  cymes, 


^••OFERTV  OF 

umKti 


APKTAL0U8   DICOTYLKDOXOUIS  ANGlOSPEKMiS.  27 

perfect   or   polygamous.      Receptacle    funnel-shaped,    perianth    in    6    parts. 
Stamens  12,  3  of  which  are  sterile.     Fruit  a  berry. 

Camphor  Tree,  Cinnamon,  Cinnamomum. 

Order  XL VIII.    SANTALACE.^. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees,  frequently  parasitic.  The  Santaluni  is  a  large 
tree,  of  Southern  Asia.  Leaves  opposite,  oblong,  entire,  penninerved  in  5 
pairs.  Stamens  equal  to  sepals,  and  opposite  to  them.  Ovary  inferior.  Fruit 
dry,  1-seeded.     Flowers  terminal. 

Sandal-wood,  Santalum. 

Order  XLIX.    EUPHORBIACE^. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  Juice  milky,  acrid,  sometimes  watery  and  pois- 
onous. Leaves  alternate,  rarely  opposite  or  whorled,  sometimes  very  small. 
Flowers  with  single,  double,  or  no  perianth. 

Spurge,  Euphorbia. 

Caoutchouc,  Hevea. 

Box,  Buxus. 

Croton-oil  Plant,  Croton. 

Tapioca,  Manihot. 

Castor-oil  Plant,  Ricinus. 

Order  L.     URTICACE^. 

Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs.  Flowers  diclinous.  Stamens  as  many  as  the 
calyx  lobes,  and  opposite  to  them.  Ovary  1 -celled.  Style  simple  or  2-cleft. 
Sap  of  trees  milky  or  watery.  Leaves  alternate  and  stipulate ;  stipules 
falling. 

Mulberry,  Morus. 

Elm,  Ulmus. 

Hop,  Humulus. 

Fig,  Ficus. 

Hemp,  Cannabis. 

Order  LL    JUGLANDACE^. 

Trees.  Flowers  diclinous,  perianth  of  staminate  flower  a  scale ;  that 
of  pistillate  flower  2-4-toothed.  Ovary  1-celled,  1-ovuled.  Fruit  a  drupe. 
Endocarp  2-valved.     Leaves  pinnate,  stijjulate. 

Butternut,        Walnut,         Juglans. 

Hickory  nut,    Pecan  Nut,  Hicoria. 

Order  LII.     CUPULIFER^. 

Trees.  Staminate  flowers  with  an  une(|ually  lol)ed  calyx.  Calyx  of  pistillate 
flowers  6-toothed.  Ovary  2-6-cellod.  Fruit  one  to  three  1-seeded  nuts  in  an 
involucre.     Leaves  alternate,  simple,  stipulate. 

Chestnut,  Castanea. 

Oak,  Quercus. 

Hazelnut,  Corylus. 

Beech,         Fagus. 


28  SYNOPSIS  OF   ORDERS  AND   GENERA. 


Order  LIII.     SALICACE-ffl. 

Shrubs  and   trees.     Flowers  in  a  catkin.     Dioecious.     Stigma  2-3-lobed. 
Leaves  alternate,  stipulate. 

Willow,  Osier,  Salix. 


Class  II.    MONCOTYLEDONOUS  ANGIOSPERMS. 

Leaves  parallel- veined. 

Order  LIV.     ORCHIDACE^. 

A  woody  vine.     Flowers  perfect,  but  very  irregular  in  form.     Stem  climb- 
ing, 16  to  20  feet  long.     I'ruit  6  to  10  inches  in  length. 

Vanilla,  Vanilla. 

Order  LV.    ZINGIBERACE^. 

Herbs.     Flower  perfect,  irregular.     Perianth  6-parted.  1  stamen.    Anther 
1 -celled. 

Turmeric,  Curcuma. 

Arrowroot,  Maranta. 

Cardamom,  Elettaria. 

Ginger,  Zingiber. 
Banana,  Manilla,  Musa. 

Order  LVI.    BROMELIACE^. 

Herbs.     Flowers  perfect,  mostly  regular.     Perianth  6-parted,  with  6  perfect 
stamens. 

Pineapple,  Ananassa. 

Order  LVII.    IRIDACE-ai. 

Herbs.     Flowers  perfect,  bell-shaped. 

Saffron,  Crocus. 


Order  LVIII.    DIOSCOREACE^. 

Shrubs.       Flowers    dioecious,     regular    and    axillary.       Racemes     incon- 
spicuous. 

Yam,  Chinese  Yam,  Dioscorea. 


Order  LIX.     LILIACE^. 

Herbs.     Flowers  perfect,  usually  terminal  and  solitary.     Perianth  6-parted. 
Fruit  a  capsule.     Leaves  sheathing. 

Sarsaparilla,  Smilax. 

Asparagus,  Asparagus. 

New  Zealand  Flax,  Phormium. 

Aloes,  Aloe. 


CONIFEROUS  GYMNOSPERMS.  29 


Order  LX.    PALM^. 

Shrubs,  small  aud  large  trees.  Flowers  in  a  branched  spadix.  Perianth  in 
6  parts  arranged  iu  2  series.  Stamens  usually  6.  Fruit  variou.s  in  form 
and  size. 

Betel  Nut,     Areca. 

Date  Palm,    Phoenix. 

Cocoanut,        Cocos. 

Sago  Palm,   Metroxylon. 

Order  LXI.     GRAMINE^. 

Herbs.  Flower  envelope  usually  witli  2  (rarely  more)  small  scales.  Fruit 
grooved  on  one  side.     Stem  tapering  and  usually  hollow.     Leaves  sheathing. 

Indian  Corn,   Zea. 
Wheat,  Triticum. 

Rice,  Oryza. 

Sugar  Cane,   Saccharum. 
Broom  Corn,  Sorghum. 
Rye,  Secale. 

Barley,  Hordeum. 

Oats,  Avena. 

Millet,  Setaria. 


Class  III.     GYMNOSPERMS. 

Order  LXII.    CONIFERS. 

Shrubs  and  trees,  mostly  trees.  Flowers  without  perianth.  Fruit  naked 
In  the  scales  of  a  cone  or  in  a  berry-like  cup.  Leaves  oi)posite,  whorled,  or 
fascicled,  simple,  with  simple  nerves. 

Pine,  Pinus. 

Spruce,  Picea. 

Fir,  Abies. 

Larch,  Larix. 

Cedar,  Jviniperus. 

Arbor  Vitae,  Thuja. 

Hemlock,       Tsuga. 

Cypress,         Chamaecyparis. 


DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 


Order  I.    RANUNCULACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular  or  irregular,  rarely  dioecious,  mostly  ter- 
minal, solitary,  racemed  or  panicled,  white  or  yellow.  Sepals  3- 
many,  usually  5,  free,  sometimes  petaloid,  imbricate,  seldom  valvate. 
Petals  equal  to  and  alternate  wdth  the  sepals,  hj^ogynous,  free, 
clawed,  imbricate,  equal  or  unequal,  varied  in  form,  frequently  minute 
or  wanting.  Stamexs  numerous,  many-rowed,  hypogynous ;  filaments 
thread-like  or  clavate,  free ;  anthers  terminal,  2-celled.  Carpels  few 
or  many,  seldom  solitary ;  style  simple ;  stigma,  usually  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  top  of  the  style  ;  fruit  pointed  or  feathery  akenes.  Seeds 
with  coriaceous  testa.  Leaves  radical,  or  alternate  on  the  stem  and 
branches,  seldom  opposite,  simple  or  compound,  exstipulate;  petiole 
broadened  or  clasping.  Mostly  herbs,  or  woody  climbers,  occasionally 
shrubs,  with  sharp,  bitter,  mostly  poisonous  juice.  There  are  30  genera 
in  this  Order  varying  greatly  in  form,  and  540  species,  growing  in  tem- 
perate and  cold  climates. 

ANEMONE,  L.  (Windflower.)  Sepals,  5  or  many,  petal-like.  Petals 
wanting  or  rudimentary.  Stamens  numerous,  short.  Fruit  in  roundish 
or  subcylindrical  head.  Akenes  mucronate.  Involucre  open  and  below 
the  flowers,  which  are  terminal.    Herbs,  perennial,  with  radical  leaves. 

1.  A.  cylindrica,  Gray.  (Long-fruited  Anemone.)  Stem  1  to  2  feet  high, 
silky,  pubescent.  Leaves  2-3  inches  Avide,  3-parted,  parts  wedge-shaped, 
deeply  lobed,  and  toothed.  Side  lobes  2-parted,  middle  one  3-parted,  lobes 
toothed  and  gashed  at  the  apex  ;  petioles  3  to  6  inches  long ;  involucre  long- 
petioled.  Flowers  on  long,  naked,  2-flowered  peduncles,  3-6  in  number, 
occasionally  1-  or  more-involucred.  Sepals  5,  silky,  greenish  white,  blunt. 
Fruit  iu  cylindrical  heads  an  incli  or  more  long.     May. 

Geography.  —  Dry  copses.     Mass.  to  New  Jersey,  and  Avest  to  Colorado. 

2.  A.  decapetala,  L.  (A.  Caroliniana,  AYalt. )  (Carolina  Anemone.)  Stem 
3  to  10  inches  high,  puliescent  above ;  tuber  round,  sending  up  several  leaves 
and  one  stem  or  scape.  Leaves  long-stalked,  3-parted,  mucli  divided  into 
wedge-shaped  linear  divisions.  Involucre  below  middle  of  scape,  2-  or  3-leaved, 
each  3-parted,  segments  3-cleft.  Flowers  showy,  sepals  10-20,  nearly  linear, 
outer  ones  dotted  with  purple.    Fruit  in  oblong  cylindrical  head.    April,  May. 

Geography.  —  Carolina  to  Arkansas  and  Nebraska. 

3.  A.  dichotoma,  L.  (A.  Pennsylvanica,  L.)  (Pennsylvanian  Anemone.)  Stem 
12  to  20  inches  high,  frequently  less  than  12,  —  dichotomous  and  hairy.  Leaves 
of  the  root  3-7-parted,  segments  cuneate,  3-lobed  and  acuminate,  or  pointed, 
parts  large  and  veiny ;  those  of  the  main  involucre  3-parted,  acuminate-lobed 
and  toothed,  those  of  involucres,  sessile.  First  f.ower  appears  on  a  naked 
peduncle  from  the  base  oi  which  rise  two  branches,  each  with  a  2-leaved 

30 


RANUNCUT.ACE^. 


31 


Anemone  hepatica  (Round-lobed  Hepatica). 

biugers 
of  spring,  often  putting  fortli  its  blossoms  in  the 
neighborhood  of  some  lingering  snowbank. 

Geography.  —  Canada  to  Georgia, 
and  west  to  the  Mississippi  valley- 
In  damp  woods,  not  rare,  identical 
Avith  the  European  plant. 

5.  A.  acutiloba,  Lawson.  (Hepatica 
acutiloba,  DC.)  (Sharp-lobed  Hepat- 
ica.) Lobes  of  the  leaves  acute ; 
number  of  lobes  sometimes  5  ;  lobes 
of  the  involucre  also  sharp.  Sepals 
7-12,  pale-purple,  or  nearly  Avhite. 

Geography. — The  A.  acutiloba  is 
found  in  the  same  geographical 
limits  as  the  A.  hepatica. 

6.  A.  multifida,  DC.  (Many-cleft 
Anemone. )  Stem  6  to  1 2  inches  high, 
clothed  with  silky  hairs.  Radical 
leaves,  3  divided  segments  wedge- 
shaped,  slit  into  3  narrow  sharp  lobes, 
petioles  3-4  inches  long.  Leaves  of 
the  involucre  2-3  on  short  petioles, 
divided  as  the  root  leaves.  Flowers 
purj)le,  varying  to  yellowish-white. 
Scjials  .')-8,  lilunt,  small.  Fruit  in  a 
globular  head.     June. 


involucre,  and  one  terminal  flower. 
Flowers  white,  large  ;  sepals  5, 
obovate.  Fruit  in  a  ghjbular 
head.     June  to  Aug. 

Geograjihy.  —  Canada  to  Peun. 
and  west  to  Ind.  and  W^is.  spar- 
ingly. 

4.  A.  hepatica,  L.  (Hepatica 
triloba,  Cliaix.)  (Kound-lobed 
Hepatica.)  Leaves  3-lobed  ;  lobes 
ovate,  obtu.'^e,  or  rounded,  entire, 
all  radical,  on  long,  hairy  petioles, 
smooth  and  evergreen  ;  purplish 
underneath.  Flowers  single,  on 
scapes,  3  to  4  inches  long,  purplish 
blue  or  nearly  white.  Sepals  G-'J. 
Akenes  several,  in  a  small  loose 
head,  pointed  and  hairy.  ^Nlarch 
to  May. 

This 
plant  is 
one  of 
the  ear- 
liest har- 


Aakmonk  nkmokosa  (Wiudriower). 


32  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  Vermont,  northern  N.  Y.,  and  north  and  west  to  the  Pacific, 
rare. 

7.  A.  nemorosa,  L.  (Windflower.  Wood  Anemone.)  Stem  5  to  10  inches 
high,  smooth,  from  a  filiform,  frequently  knotty,  root  stock.  Radical  leaf 
solitary,  ternate,  leaflets  usually  undivided,  occasionally  3-parted  or  cleft; 
leaves  of  the  involucre  petioled,  3  in  number,  and  near  the  summit  of  the 
stem,  just  above  which  is  the  solitary  flower ;  sepals  4-7,  oval  or  elliptical, 
white,  pinkish  or  purplish  outside.  Fruit  in  a  head,  carpels  oblong,  tipped 
with  a  hooked  beak.     April,  May. 

Qpograpliy.  —  Northern  United  States  and  British  America,  in  open  woods 
near  the  base  of  old  trees. 

8.  A.  parviflora,  Mx.  (Small-flowered  Anemone.)  Stem  3  to  10  inches 
high,  pubescent.  Leaves  3-parted,  parts  3-cleft  and  wedge-shaped,  divisions 
crenate  ;  involucre  2-  or  3-leaved,  nearly  sessile,  divided  as  the  other  leaves. 
Flowers  Avhite,  sepals  5-6,  oval.     Fruit  in  a  globular  head.     May  to  June. 

Geography.  —  Canada,  near  Lake  Superior,  west  to  the  Colorado  Mountains, 
and  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

9.  A.  patens,  L.  (Var.  Nuttaliana,  Gray.)  (Pasque-flower.)  Stem  6  to  12 
inches  high,  clothed  Avith  silky  liairs.  Leaves  on  long  petioles,  silky,  ternately 
divided  segments,  cut  into  linear  and  wedge-shaped  sections,  the  middle  seg- 
ment stalked  and  3-parted,  involucre  below  the  middle  of  the  stem,  sessile 
and  finely  dissected,  concave  or  cup-shaped.  Flower  solitary,  appearing  before 
the  leaves,  sepals  5-6  or  7,  nearly  an  inch  long,  pale-purple  and  showy,  silky 
outside. 

Geography.  —  Dry  hills.  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  west  and  north  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region. 

10.  A.  Virginiana,  L.  (Virginian  Anemone.  Thimble  weed.)  Stem  or 
scape  2  to  3  feet  high,  hairy,  usually  divided  above  into  2  or  3  long  peduncles, 
with  involucres  of  two  bracts  at  the  middle,  or  1  naked,  main  involucre  3-leaYed. 
Leaves  on  petioles  6  to  10  inches  long,  stalks  of  the  bracts  shorter,  leaf  3-parted, 
parts  ovate-lanceolate,  toothed  and  lobed ;  those  of  the  side  2-parted,  middle 
one  3-cleft.  Sepals  5,  greenish-yellow  or  whitish.  Fruit  in  oblong,  woolly 
heads.    June  to  August. 

Geography  —  Canada,  south  to  Carolina.    Woods  and  damp  copses,  common. 

Etymology  and  History. — Anemone  is  from  the  Greek  word  6,v€jxos,  Avind; 
the  ancients  believed  the  plant  always  appeared  in  places  exposed  to  the  wind. 
The  specific  names  are  from  the  Latin,  and  are  explained  by  the  common 
names,  which  are  translations,  as  follows:  Parviflora,  small-flowered  ;  Mul- 
t'tfida,  many-cleft ;  Carol iniana,  Carolina  Anemone,  etc.  Hepatica  from  the 
Greek  rj-jrariKos,  the  liver,  due  to  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  3-lobed 
leaves  to  the  shape  of  the  liver.     Most  of  the  species  are  natives  of  Europe. 

Cultivation.  —  By  cultivation  the  size  of  the  flower  may  be  increased;  the 
colors  are  modified,  and  many  of  the  stamens  are  often  changed  into  small 
petals.  The  anemone  prefers  a  light  soil ;  the  root  is  taken  up  after  flower- 
ing, the  plant  being  propagated  by  parting  the  roots  as  well  as  by  seed.  Seed- 
ing plants  do  not  flower  till  the  second  or  third  year. 

Use.  —  Several  species  of  anemone  are  used  for  ornamental  purposes.  They 
are  easily  raised  from  the  seed,  and  a  bed  of  the  single  varieties  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  a  flower-garden,  as  it  affords  in  a  warm  situation  an  abundance  of 
handsome  and  brilliant  spring  floAvers,  appearing  almost  as  early  as  the  snow- 
drop and  the  crocus.     In  Europe  it  is  used  as  borders  in  planted  grounds,  and 


RANUNCULACEjE. 


some  species  are  such  favorites  with  florists  aud  amateurs  as  to  have  au  im- 
portant commercial  value,  especially  in  England  and  (iermany.  The  anemone 
acutiloba  is  used  by  empirics  for  the  cure  of  pulmonary  disorders. 

ANEMONELLA,  Spach.  Involucre  not  close  to  the  flower,  composed 
of  2  ternate  sessile  leaves.  Calyx  regular,  composed  of  3  to  many 
colored  sepals.  Corolla 
wanting.  Ovaries  numer- 
ous,  free,  forming  a  sub-  .^.a!&  J 

globular  head.  Akenes 
with  short  beak.  Leaves 
radical. 

A.  thalictroides,  Spach. 
(Thalictrum  anemonoides, 
Mx.)  (Rue  Anemone.)  Stem 
smooth,  5  to  10  inches  liigh. 
Leaves  glabrous,  biteruate,  or 
triternate,  common  leaf-stalk 
2  to  5  inclies  long.  Leaflets 
roundish,  3-lobed  at  the  end, 
cordate  at  base.  Flowers  sub- 
umbellate,  involucre  of  two 
ternate  leaves.  Several  white 
or  pale-purple  sepals,  some- 
times lobed  like  the  leaves. 
Flowers  in  early  spring. 

This  plant  is  one  of  the 
few  that  greet  us  in  early 
spring  in  the  Northern  States, 
and  upon  which  the  novice  iu 
botany  takes  his  first  lessons. 

Geography.  —  Canada  to 
Georgia,  and  west  through 
the  Mississippi  valley,  in  open 
woods,  near  the  roots  of  trees, 
and  especially  in  windy  ex- 
posures. 

RANUNCULUS,  L.  (But- 
tercup. Crowfoot.)  Se- 
pals 5.  Petals  5  or  more, 
a  scale  or  pit  at  the  base. 
Stamens  numerous,  sel- 
dom few.     Akenes  many, 

flattened,  ovate,  pointed,  arranged  in  globular  or  cylindrical  heads. 
Herbs,  annual  or  perennial.  Leaves  usually  radical.  Flowers  termi- 
nal, solitary,  or  in  imj^erfect  corymbs,  yellow,  sometimes  white. 

1.   R.  abortivus,  L.     (Small-flowered  Crowfoot.)     Stem  branching,  smooth, 

0  to  30  inclies  higli.     Leaves  at  the  base  petiolate,  cordate-orbicular,  creuate, 

fre(|uently  3-parted  ;    stem-leaves   in    threes,   3-5   cleft,  witli    linear,   oblong, 

nearly  entire  segments  ;   upper  ones  sessile,  foliage  varying  greatly  iu  form. 

Pk.  Fl.  —  4 


Anemonella  thalictroides  {Rue  Anemone). 


34 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Flowers  small,  yellow.     Sepals  reflexed,  longer  than  the  petals.     Carpels  in  a 
globular  head  tipped  with  a  short  recurved  beak.     May  to  June. 

Geography.  —  Common  throughout  the  northeastern  States,  and  west  to 
California.     Damp  and  shaded  places. 

Var.  micranthus,  Gray.  (R.  micranthus,  Nutt.)  Has  whole  plant  more  or 
less  clothed  with  soft  hairs ;  root  leaves  seldom  cordate,  some  of  them  3-parted  ; 

divisions  of  those  on  the  upper 
parts  of  the  stem  more  linear 
and  entire ;  peduncles  more 
slender. 

Geography.  —  Mass.,  New 
York,  Miss.,  and  West.  In 
dryer,  more  open  grounds  than 
the  species. 

2.  R.  acris,  L.  (Buttercup, 
Wayside  CroAvfoot.  Garden 
Buttercup,  Biting  Crowfoot.) 
Stem  erect,  branched,  1  to  3 
feet  high,  hairy,  round,  hollow. 
Leaves  on  long  stalks  at  the 
base  and  on  the  lower  parts  of 
stem,  upper  ones  on  short 
sheathing  petioles,  di^-ided  in- 
to 3  parts  or  leaflets ;  leaflets 
lobed,  segments  acute,  parts 
sometimes  linear.  Flowers 
large,  bright-yellow,  shining, 
becoming  double  by  cultiva- 
tion. Petals  obovate,  larger 
than  the  spreading  sepals. 
Carpels  roundish,  smooth,  com- 
pressed, terminated  by  a  round- 
ish recurved  beak.  June  to 
August. 

Geography.  —  This  is  a  Eu- 
ropean plant.  It  was  brought 
to  northeastern  N.  America  in 
seed-grain  by  European  colo- 
nists, has  spread  over  the  At- 
lantic States  and  Canada,  and 

is  reaching  towards  the  West.     Common  in  fields,  especially  damp  meadows, 

and  roadsides. 

3.  R.  ambigens,  S.  Wats.  (R.  alismaefolius,  Gray,  not  Geyer.)  (Water  Plan' 
tain,  Spearwort).  Leaves  entire.  Stem  hollow,  1  to  2  feet  high,  falling  when 
young,  rooting  at  lower  joints  afterwards  assurgent.  Leaves  3  to  6  inches  long, 
narrow,  lanceolate,  entire  or  toothed,  acute,  subpetiolate,  clasping,  especially 
below,  nearly  sessile  above.  Petals  5  or  7,  golden  yellow,  larger  than  sepals. 
Flowers  solitary.  Petioles  2  to  3  inches  long.  Carpels  flattened,  large,  and 
armed  with  long,  fine  beak.     June  to  August. 

Geography.  —  Northeastern  North  America,  South  Carolina,  west  to  Oregon. 
lu  damp  places,  edges  uf  still  water,  coves  of  sluggish  brooks. 


Ranunculus  bulbosus  (Bulbous  Crowfoot). 


RANUXCULACEiE. 


35 


4.  R.  aquatilis,  L.  (Var.  trichophyllus,  Gray.)  (White  Water-crowfoot.) 
Stem  1  to  2  feet  long,  slender,  weak,  ronnd,  smooth,  jointed,  floating.  Leaves 
stalked,  dicliotomously  divided  into  many  diverging  hairlike  segments,  sub- 
merged, or  some  floating,  rounded,  3-5-lobed.  Petals  white,  narrow.  June 
to  August. 

Geography. — Found  sparingly  from  Arctic  America  to  South  Carolina,  west 
to  the  Tvocky  Mountains.     In  ponds  and  sluggish  streams. 

5.  R.  bulbosus,  L.  (Bull)ous  Crowfoot.  Buttercup.)  Stem  8  to  13  inches 
liigh,  hollow,  erect,  s])aringly  clothed  with  a])pressed  ])ube.scence,  or  densely  cov- 
ered witli  stiff,  spreading  hairs,  somewhat  branched,  enlarging  at  the  base  into 
a  bulb.     Leaves  mostly 

radical,  on  long  stalks, 
teruate,  middle  leaflet 
stalked,  lateral  divisions 
sub-sessile,  lobed,  with 
crenate  or  acute  divi- 
sions ;  stem  leaves  on 
short  sheathing  petioles, 
or  nearly  sessile;  lobes 
much  cut  into  linear  di- 
visions. Flowers  bright- 
yellow,  large,  showy,  be- 
coming double  by  culti- 
vation. Petals  rounded, 
wedge-shaped  at  base, 
nmch  longer  than  the  re- 
flexed  sepals,  frequently 
6-7  in  number.  Carj)els 
tipped  with  a  short  beak. 
May  to  August. 

Geo(/raj)hi/.  —  This  is 
eminently  a  British  plant, 
and  was  no  doubt  intro- 
duced into  northeastern 
North  America  by  Brit- 
ish colonists  in  their  seed- 
grain,  etc.  Abundant  in 
the  damp  meadows  and 
pastures  of  the  Atlantic 
States,  especially  in  New  England  and  eastern  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 

6.  R.  Cymbalaria,  Pursh.  (Seaside  CroA\'foot.)  Stem  slender,  3  to  8  inche.^ 
long,  creeping  and  rooting.  Leaves  clustered  near  the  root,  cordate,  kidney- 
shaped,  crenate-dentate.  Flowers  bright-yellow,  scapes  3  to  6  inches  long, 
1-7  flowered,  mostly  without  leaves.  Petals  5-8,  oval.  Carpels  striate,  beak 
short.     June  to  August. 

Geography.  —  Coast  of  New  Jersey,  northward  to  Canada,  along  the  borders 
of  salt  mar.shes,  especially  coasts  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy ;  near  salt  springs ; 
inland  along  the  Great  Lakes;  west  to  California. 

7.  R.  fascicularis,  Muhl.  (Fascicle-rooted  Crowfoot.  Early  Crowfoot.) 
Stem  erect,  G  to  10  inches  high,  clothed  with  silky  hairs:  root  a  bundle  of  fleshy 
fibers.     Leaves  of  tlie  ujtper  jiart  of  the  stem  on  sliort  petioles,  the  radical  and 


Ranunculus  fasciculakis  (Fascicle-rooted  Crowfoot). 


36  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

lower  ones  on  stalks  from  3  to  8  inches  long ;  blade  of  the  radical  leaves  pin- 
nate, or  very  much  divided ;  the  terminal  division  stalked,  lateral  ones  sessile. 
Flowers  large ;  petals  yellow,  spatulate,  or  oblong,  with  a  scale  at  base,  much 
longer  than  the  sepals.     April,  May. 

Geography.  —  Throughout  the  Atlantic  States  in  southern  exposures  of  rocky 
liillsides  and  open  woods. 

8.  R.  Flammula,  L.  (Var.  intefmedius,  Hook.)  (Smaller  Spearwort.)  Stem 
prostrate,  upright,  or  assurgent,  frequently  rooting  below,  usually  less  than  a 
foot  high.  Leaves  lanceolate,  entire,  or  slightly  toothed,  linear  lanceolate, 
lower  ones  Avider  on  short  petioles,  or  sessile.  Petals  5,  6,  or  7,  golden  yellow, 
larger  than  sepals.  Carpels  flattish,  each  armed  with  a  sharp  point.  Fhjwers 
from  July  to  September. 

Var.  reptans,  Gray.  (Creeping  Spearwort.)  Diminutive  form.  Stem 
less  than  6  inches  long,  prostrate,  rooting  at  all  the  nodes.  Leaves  small, 
varying  from  linear  to  oblong  or  spatulate.    Flowers  from  June  to  September, 

Geography.  —  Northern  part  of  New  York,  and  northward  on  sandy  shores. 
Northward  rare.     The  following  form  is  more  common. 

9.  R.  multifidus,  Pursh.  (Much-divided  leaved  Crowfoot.  Yellow  Water 
Crowfoot.)  Stem  long,  slender,  submerged,  or  floating.  Leaves  in  3-forked, 
thread-like,  linear,  or  wedge  shaped  divisions,  varying  in  outline;  floating 
leaves  lobed.  Sepals  reflexed,  shorter  than  petals.  Petals  bright-yellow,  5-8. 
Carpels  smooth,  in  a  subglobular  head,  crowned  with  spine-like  tips. 

Geography.  —  Northeastern  North  America,  in  ponds,  sluggish  streams, 
and  muddy  places. 

Var.  terrestris,  Gray.  Does  not  grow  in  the  water ;  has  ascending  stems, 
bearing  eacli  a  small  panicle  of  flowers  at  its  summit.  Leaves  in  the  form  of 
linear  or  oblong  bracts. 

Geography.  — Michigan,  near  Ann  Arbor,  Minn.,  Alaska. 

10.  R.  muricatus,  L.  (Prickly-seeded  Crowfoot)  Stem  erect,  branched,  12 
inches  high,  glabrous.  Leaves  roundish,  cordate,  3-lobed  ;  lobes  coarsely  cre- 
nate-toothed ;  all  similar  and  petioled ;  petioles  1  to  5  inches  long ;  bracts 
near  the  flower  simple.  Flowers  small,  few,  yellow ;  petals  obovate ;  carpels 
large,  aculeate,  strongly  margined,  ending  in  a  stout,  ensiform,  recurved  beak. 
May  to  July. 

Geography.  —  Seed  brought  from  Europe  in  grain.  Plairt  naturalized  in 
southern  United  States,  Virginia  to  Louisiana.  Also  seen  by  Dr.  Wood  in 
California.    Loves  damp  places. 

11.  R.  oblongifolius.  Ell.  (Oblong-leaved  Crowfoot.)  Stem  usually  erect, 
slender,  sometimes  hairy  below,  much  branched  above,  about  a  foot  high. 
Leaves  lance-ovate,  lanceolate,  linear,  or  oblong,  serrate  or  toothed,  lower  ones 
or  all  petioled.  Flowers  golden  yellow.  Petals  5,  very  much  larger  tlian  the 
sepals.  Stamens  20  or  more.  Carpels  small,  globular,  crowned  with  a  little 
spot.     (R.  pusillus  var.  Torr.  &  Gray.)      Flowers  in  June. 

Geography.  —  Southern  United  States.     Wet  prairies.     Salem,  111, 

12.  R,  parviflorus,  L.  (Small-flowered  Crowfoot.)  Stem  6  to  12  inches  high, 
slender,  branched.  Leaves  all  petiolate,  small,  roundish,  cordate,  3-lobed, 
segments  sharply  toothed.  Flowers  very  small.  Yellow  petals  and  sepals, 
about  the  same  length.  Carpels  globular,  small,  tipped  witli  a  very  short 
beak,  arranged  in  a  globose  head.     May  to  June. 

Geography.  —  Naturalized  from  Europe.  Found  in  gravelly  places.  Fron- 
Virginia  to  Louisiana. 


RANUNCrLACETE.  37 

13.  R.  Pennsylvanicus,  L.  f.  (Bristly  Crowfoot.  Pennsylvanian  Crowfoot.) 
Leaves  all  .'J-jfartod.  Stem  stout,  1  to  3  feet  high,  erect,  much  branched. 
Leaves  teriiate,  villous,  segments  sub-petiolate,  acutely  3-lobe(l,  somewhat 
ovate,  incisely  serrate ;  whole  plant  clothed  with  stiff,  spreading  hairs. 
Flowers  small,  ])ale  yellow.  Calyx  reflexed.  Sepals  longer  than  the  petals. 
Carpels  crowned  with  a  short,  straight  beak,  massed  into  an  oblong  head. 
July  and  August. 

Geo(jraphy.  —  Found  in  wet  places,  in  Canada,  eastern  United  States,  and 
west  to  Colorado. 

14.  R.  pusillus,  Poir.  (Puny  Crowfoot.)  Stem  slender,  erect,  sometimes 
prostrate,  6  to  12  inches  high,  branched.  Leaves  petioled,  lower  ones  ovate, 
orbicular  or  cordate,  entire  or  sparingly  toothed,  upper  ones  linear-lance- 
olate, obscurely  tootiied,  nearly  sessile.  Flowers  small,  pale-yellow,  on  long 
peduncles,  1-flowered.  Petals  1-5,  sometimes  3,  barely  longer  than  the 
sepals.  Stamens  5-10.  Carpels  crowned  with  small  blunt  point.  Juue 
to  August. 

Geography.  —  Southern  New  York,  and  along  the  eastern  and  southern  parts 
of  the  Southern  and  Gulf  States  to  Louisiana,  in  wet  places. 

15.  R.  recurvatus,  Poir  (Hooked  Crowfoot.  Wood  Crowfoot.)  Stem  erect, 
8  to  18  inches  high,  whole  plant  clothed  with  roughish  hairs,  sometimes  fork- 
edly  branched.  Leaves  ternate,  or  deeply  3-parted,  leaflets  or  segments 
broad,  wedge-shaped,  and  acute ;  lateral  ones  2-lobed  ;  lower  petioles  long, 
sheathing  at  base ;  upper  ones  much  shorter.  Plowers  small,  pale-yellow,  on 
short  peduncles ;  petals  shorter  than  the  reflexed  sepals.  Carpels  in  a  glob- 
ular head,  margined,  and  crowned  with  the  sharp-hooked  style.  Whole  plant 
pale-green.     May  to  July. 

Geograplvj.  —  LaI)rador  to  Floritla,  throughout  northeastern  North  America. 
Shady  woods  and  damp  jJaces. 

16.  R.  repens,  L.  (Creeping  Crowfoot.)  Stem  G  to  15  inches  long,  runners 
sometimes  longer,  hairy  wiien  in  dry  ground,  glabrous  when  in  wet  places; 
sparingly  branched.  Root  fascicled  and  large.  Leaves  ternate,  on  long  stalks  ; 
leaflets  wedge-shaped,  3-lobed,  incisely  toothed,  middle  one  })etioled,  lateral 
ones  on  short  petioles  or  nearly  sessile  ;  hairy  on  the  veins  and  edges  when  in 
dry  ground,  veins  conspicuous  underneath.  Flowers  large,  l)right  yellow; 
petals  obovate,  larger  than  the  pilose  sjjreading  sepals.  Carpels  with  a  straight 
point,  strongly  margined.     May  to  .iVugust. 

Foliage  and  general  appearance  of  tlie  ])laiit  very  variable.  Wlien  found  in 
a  damp  meadow  and  spreading  up  a  dry  hillside,  it  seems  to  run  into  No.  13, 
in  form  of  leaf  and  stem. 

Geof/rapliy.  —  Atlantic  States,  and  west  to  the  Pacific.  It  loves  damj) 
ground,  but  is  fr('(iuoiitly  found  on  the  lower  edges  of  hillsides. 

17.  R.  rhomboideus,  (ioldio.  (Rhomboi<lleaved  Crowfoot.)  Stem  3  to  (i 
inches  high,  much  braiuliod,  liairy.  Leaves  at  tlie  root,  on  long  stalks,  rliom- 
boid-ovate,  crenate-dentate ;  stem  leaves  l)elow  similar,  3-.5-lobeil,  up])er  ones 
nearly  se.'^sile,  lobes  linear.  Flowers  deep-yellow.  Petals  larger  than  the 
sepals.     Carpels  globular,  beak  small,  head  spherical.     April  to  May. 

Geofp-aphi/.  —  Micln'gan,  111.,  Wis.,  southwest  to  Colorado,  and  north  to 
British  America. 

18.  R.  sceleratus,  ]j.  (Wicked  Crowfoot.  Celery-leaved  Crowfoot.  Cursed 
Crowfoot.)  Stem  thick,  hollow,  10  to  15  inclies  high,  glabrous,  and  branched. 
Leaves  at  the  base  3-lobed,   long-petioled  ;   lobes  divided,  those  on  the  lower 


38 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


stem  .3-parted,  on  shorter  petioles;  upper  ones  nearly  sessile,  lobes  oblong, 
linear,  entire,  or  toothed.  Flowers  small,  numerous,  pale-yellow.  Carpels 
small,  numerous,  in  cylindrical  heads.     Juice  very  acrid.     May  to  August. 

Geography.  —  Canada  to  Georgia,  and  west  to  Colorado.  Sparingly  in 
damp  places,  edges  of  ditches,  and  near  living  water,  brooksides,  etc. 

19.  E.  septentrionalis,  Poir.  (R.  palmatus,  Ell.)  (Hand-shaped-leaf  Crow- 
foot.) Stem  12  to  1 8  inches  high,  pubescent,  slightly  branched,  branches  slender. 
Leaves  on  long  stalks,  pentangular  in  outline,  pubescent,  3-5-palmately  cleft ; 
segments  all  sessile,  and  cut-toothed  or  lobed,  upper  leaves  composed  of  3 
linear  segments.  Flowers  few,  small,  yellow.  Carpels  few,  margined,  and 
straight-beaked.     April  and  May. 

Geographij.  —  Southern  U.  S.,  in  pine  woods,  from  Carolina  to  Florida. 
Etymology.  —  Ranunculus,  the  generic   name,  is   derived   from   the   Latin 

1-ana,  a  frog,  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  many  of  the  species  grow  in  wet 
places,  the  home  of  the  frog.  The 
specific  names  are  derived  from  the 
following  Latin  words  :  Abort ivus, 
not  bringing  forth  properly,  due  to 
its  small  flowers.  Acrls,  from  acer, 
sharp,  or  biting,  due  to  the  sharp, 
acrid  taste  of  the  juice.  Aquatilif;, 
living  in  or  near  the  water.  Bu/bosus, 
having  small  heads  or  bulbs,  named 
from  tlie  bulb-shaped  root.  Cymbal- 
(in'a,  boat-like  cup,  said  to  have  been 
applied  on  account  of  the  fancied  re- 
semblance of  the  calyx  to  a  boat. 
Fascicularis,  from  fasciculus,  a  little 
bundle,  applied  because  the  fibrous 
roots  of  this  species  appear  in  groups. 
Flammu'a,  flame,  due  to  the  bright, 
flame-like  color  of  the  petals  of  this 
species.  Multijidus,  many-cleft  as  to 
the  leaf.  Muricattts,  abounding  in 
sharp  points.  Ob/ongifolius,  from  ob- 
longus,  oblong,  ^nA  folium,  a  leaf; 
hence  oblong-leaved.  Parviforus, 
from  parvus,  small,  and^Zos,  a  flower ; 
hence  small-flowered.  Pusillus,  small,  referring  to  the  size  of  the  plant. 
Recurvatus,  bent  back,  the  carpels  have  a  hooked  beak.  Repens,  creeping. 
Rhomboideiis,  like  a  rhombus,  due  to  the  shape  of  the  leaves.  Sceleratus, 
Avicked,  or  biting,  due  to  the  burning,  acrid  taste  of  tlie  juice  of  this  species. 
Septentrionalis,  northern,  i.  e.,  growing  in  the  north. 

Use.  —  Some  of  the  species  are  very  showy,  and  early  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  gardeners  and  cultivators  of  flowers,  and  are  still  favorites.  The 
medicinal  properties  of  the  Ranunculus  are  little  known.  The  acrid  juice 
of  the  R.  sceleratus  and  some  other  species  blisters  the  skin  very  rapidly. 

The  leaves  of  the  R.  ficaria  are  used  for  salad  in  France.  The  root  of  this 
species  was  formerly  used  as  a  remedy  in  the  cure  of  piles.  The  roots  of  the 
R.  bulbosus  are  edible  when  cooked.  R.  aconitifolius,  L.,  Van-^fais  of  France, 
is  a  favorite  in  cultivation  for  its  white  flowers. 


Ranunculus  sceleratus  (Wicked  Crowfoot). 


RANUNCULACEiE.  39 

THALICTRUM,  L.  (Meadow  Rue.)  Xo  involucre.  Calyx  usually 
colored.  Sepals  4-5  or  7,  concave,  falling  early.  Xo  corolla.  Fila- 
ments generally  enlarged  above  and  longer  than  the  calyx,  numerous. 
Flowers  in  panicles,  dioecious,  or  polygamous.  Ovaries  many.  Akenes 
usually  sessile,  occasionally  stipulate,  rihbed  or  swollen,  pointed  with 
the  short  style.  Leaves  usually  ternately  compound.  Leaflets  stalked. 
Perennial  herbs. 

1.  T.  clavatum,  DC.  Stem  2  to  3  feet  high,  smooth.  Leaves  hiternate,  on 
petioles  an  inch  long ;  leaflets  roundish,  obtusely  3-5-lobed,  glaucous  beneath. 
Flowers  in  loose  panicles.  Fruit  swollen,  obovate,  striate,  acute,  and  as  long 
as  the  stipe.     June. 

Geography.  —  Southern  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

2.  T.  dioicum,  L.  (Meadow  Rue.)  Stem  smooth,  pale-green,  or  bluish,  1  to  2 
feet  high,  slender.  Leaves  ternately  decompound,  on  short  general  petioles. 
Leaflets  roundish,  obtusely  3-5-7  lobed,  paler  beneath.  Flowers  purplish  or 
pale-green,  filaments  threadlike,  longer  than  the  calyx ;  anthers  linear,  yel- 
lowish, mucrouate.  Sepals  5,  obtuse.  Inflorescence  a  panicle.  Fruit  strongly 
ribbed  and  pointed.     May. 

Geography.— British.  America  to  Georgia  and  Alabama.  In  hilly,  rocky 
woods. 

3.  T.  polygamum,  xMuhl.  (T.  Cornuti,  Gray).  (Tall  Meadow  Rue.)  Stem 
3  to  5  feet  high,  branching,  smooth,  or  slightly  pubescent.  Leaves  varialile  in 
form,  dark-green  above  and  paler  beneath,  smooth  or  pubescent;  stem  leaves 
without  general  petioles,  decompound  ;  leaflets  roundish-obovate  or  oblong, 
3-lobed  at  the  apex,  lobes  sharp,  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves.  Flowers 
perfect,  white,  in  large  panicles,  very  compound  dia?cious  or  polygamous; 
filaments  somewhat  club-shaped.  Carpels  strongly  ribbed,  sharp  at  both  ends, 
longer  than  the  style.     June  and  July. 

Geography.  —  Atlantic  States,  and  west  to  Colorado. 

4.  T.  purpurascens,  L.  (Purplish  Meadow  Rue.)  Stem  2  to  4  feet  high, 
purplish,  smooth,  or  finely  pubescent.  Leaves  roundish,  or  longer  than  wide, 
wider  towards  the  end,  mostly  3-lobed,  veins  prominent,  paler  underneath, 
margins  rolled  over.  Flowers  in  compound  panicles,  purplish  or  with  a 
greenish  tinge ;  anthers  nearly  linear ;  filaments  broader  at  the  ends ;  anthers 
drooping.     May  to  July. 

Geography.  —  New  York,  Southern  New  England,  south  to  Georgia,  and 
west  to  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Var.  ceriferum,  C.  F.  Austin.  Differs  from  T.  purpurascens  in  having  the 
lower  surface  of  the  leaves  and  the  fruit  beset  with  waxy  particles,  and  when 
bruised  exhales  a  peculiar,  strong  odor. 

Etymology.  —  Thalictrum  is  from  the  Greek  word  edWoo.  spring  forth  green, 
in  allusion  to  the  bright  green  foliage  of  the  young  shoots.  The  specific 
names  are:  Dioicum,  thus  named  because  the  flowers  are  sometimes  dia'cions 
or  dioicous.  Purpnrascen.'>,  purplish  thalictrum.  Ceri/ennn,  wax-bearing. 
Cornuti,  for  a  French  physician,  Conuitus.  Clavatum,  club-shaped,  due  to  the 
form  of  the  filaments  of  this  species. 

CALTHA,  L.  (Cow.slip.  ^Larsh  INLarigold.)  Sepals  5  to  0,  bright 
yellow,  petal-like.     Petals  wanting.     Pistils  5  to  10,  styles  very  sliort. 


40 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Pods    flattened,    spreading,    many-seeded.      Whole    plant   glabrous. 
Leaves  undivided,  but  toothed  and  large.     Perennial  herb. 

1 .  C.  leptosepala,  DC.  Differs  from  the  above  in  the  leaf,  which  is  oblong- 
ovate,  lower  ones  serrate,  llowers  usually  solitary,  rarely  two.  White  or 
bluish. 

Geography.  —  From  New  Mexico  to  Alaska.     (Coulter.) 

2.  C.  palustris,  L.  Stem  hollow,  from  8  to  12  inches  high,  cylindrical, 
grooved,  and  sometimes  prostrate,  forkedly  branched.  Root  large  and  branched. 

Leaves  dark-green,  veiny,  and  smooth ;  lower 
ones  2  to  4  inches  wide,  on  long  stems ;  upper 
ones  sessile,  round-reniform.  Flowers  bright 
yellow,  axillary,  3-5. 

Geography.  —  Found  in  wet  meadows  and 
swamps,  from  Canada  to  Carolina,  and  west  to 
Oregou. 

Number  of  species  about  a  dozen,  of  which 
six  are  found  in  North  America. 

Etymology  and  History.  —  Caltha,  the  gen- 
eric name,  is  from  the  Greek  word  Koi\a9os,  a 
goblet,  due  to  the  form  of  the  calyx,  which  re- 
sembles a  golden  cup.  Palustris  is  from  the 
Latin  word  paluster,  marshy,  on  account  of 
the  fondness  of  the  plant  for  such  localities. 
Leptosepala  is  from  the  Greek  Acttt^s,  weak, 
and  the  Latin  sepia,  to  inclose  or  surround, 
alluding  to  the  size  and  thinness  of  the 
sepals. 
Use. — The  leaves  of  both  these  species  are  used  for  greens,  and  when  very 
young  for  salad. 


Caltha  palustris  (Cowslip). 


CLEMATIS,  L.  (\"irgin's  Bower.)  Calyx  4,  sometimes  5-8-sepaled 
usually  colored,  and  pubescent.  Petals  vranting,  or  rudimentary. 
Filaments  many.  Anthers  linear.  Akenes  numerous,  in  heads  tipped 
with  the  long,  persistent,  feathery  styles.  Clinging  to  and  climbing 
over  shrubbery,  by  means  of  the  leaf-stalks.  Perennial.  Leaves  mostly 
opposite  and  compound. 

1 .  C.  crispa,  L.  (cylindrica,  Sims.)  Stem  climbing,  smooth.  Leaves  varying 
in  form ;  leaflets  5  or  9,  broad,  ovate,  or  lanceolate,  slightly  cordate  at  base, 
entire,  occasionally  3-5-lobed,  prominently  veined,  thin.  Flowers  terminal, 
large,  nodding,  campanulate,  bluish-purple.  Calyx  cylindrical,  bell-shaped. 
Sepals  dilated  above  and  spreading,  edges  thin  and  wavy.  Tails  of  the  fruit 
silky,  pubescent. 

Geography.  —  Near  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  south  to  Georgia. 

2.  C.  ochroleuca,  Ait.  Stem  8  to  10  feet  long,  usually  smaller,  and  silky. 
Leaves  simple,  ovate,  silky,  hairy  underneath,  sessile,  entire,  occasionally  3- 
lobed,  2  to  4  inches  long;  veins  prominent,  upper  surface  smooth.  Flowers 
terminal,  nodding,  bell-shaped.  Sepals  silky  outside,  creamy  white  within. 
Plumes  of  the  fruit  long  and  straw-colored.     May. 

Geography.  —  Copses  and  river  banks.     New  York  to  Georgia.     Rare. 


RANUNCULACE.^. 


41 


.■^  C  Pitcheri.  Torr.  and  Gray.  Leave's  i.ii.iuUo.  3-0 ;  loaflots  rou^h,  veins 
prominent  slightly  cordate,  ovate,  entire,  or  .'Mobed,  leathery,  upper  ones 
fre(iuentlv  simple.  Flowers  nodding.  Calyx  hell-shaped.  Sepals  ovate- 
lanceolate,  dull  purple  ;  points  narrow,  and  recurved,  nearly  an  inch  in  length. 
Fruit  tipped  with  thread-like  plumes,  naked  or  .sUghtly  pubescent.     June. 

Geography.  —  Mississippi  Valley  in  Arkansa.s,  l.nva,  and  Illinois. 

4.  C.  verticillaris,  DC.  (Whorled-leaved  Virgin's  Bower.)  Stem  10  to  20 
feet  long,  climbing  on  small  trees  by  means  of  its  coiling  petioles,  woody, 
nearly  smooth.  Leaves  in 
whorls  or  clusters  of  4,  ter- 
nate  ;  leaflets  acute,  ovate, 
slightly  notched  or  lobed. 
Flowers  appearing  in  2's,  at 
the  nodes,  with  the  leaves; 
sepals  lanceolate,  acute,  an 
inch  long,  bluish-purple. 
Filaments  about  24,  outer 
ones  spatulate,  or  petaloid, 
tipped  -svith  rudimentary 
anthers.     May  to  June. 

Geographii.  —  Atlantic 
States  from  Maine  to  North 
Carolina,  and  west  to  Cali- 
fornia, in  upland  woods. 
Not  common. 

5.  C.  viorna,  L.  (Leather 
Flower.  Way  -  adorner.) 
Stem  climbing,  10  to  15  feet 
long,  round  or  striate,  pubes- 
cent, purple,  woody.  Leaves 
opposite,  pinnately  decom- 
pound, with  9-12  leaflets, 
parts  entire  or  3-lobed,  ovate 
and  acute.  Flowers  bell- 
shaped,  axillary,  purple,  nod- 
ding on  long  peduncles,  with 
a  pair  of  sim])le  entire  leaves 
near  the  middle  ;  sepals  very 
thick  and  leathery,  acumi- 
nate, and  connivent  and  re- 
flexed  at  the  apex.  I'lumes 
of  the  fruit  from  1  to  2  inches  long.     June.  July. 

GfngrtipJn/.  —  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  west  to  Oliio.     PJch.  open  w( 

6.  C.  Virginiana,  L.  (C.)mmon  Virgin's  Rower.)  Stem  climliing.  or  clamber- 
ing over  shrubbery.  8  to  .30  feet  long,  slender,  woody,  and  channelled.  Leaves 
opposite,  ternate:  leaflets  ovate,  acute,  coarsely  toothed;  teeth  mncronate; 
more  or  less  .3-lol)ed.  Flowers  white,  axillary,  abundant,  ditecious ;  sepals  4, 
oblong,  ovate,  blunt.  Fruit  tipped  with  long  plumose  tails,  very  showy  in 
autumn.     July,  August. 

Gfoqraphn.  —  Caiiada  to  Georgia,  and  west  to  the  Mississipj.i  Valley.  Uiver 
banks  and  damp  ydaces.     Common.     Also  cultivated. 


Clematis  Virginiana  (Common  Virgin's  Bower). 


od> 


42  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Etymology.  —  Clematts,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek  word  K\rifxa,  a 
tendril,  on  account  of  the  climbing  habit  of  this  genus.  VerticiUaris,  Latin, 
is  due  to  the  mode  in  which  the  leaves  are  borne,  in  whorls.  Viorna,  Latin,  via, 
the  way,  and  onio,  adorn  —  beautifier  of  the  way.  Pitcheri,  for  Dr.  Pitcher, 
who  first  found  it  in  these  limits.  Cylindrka,  round,  is  due  to  the  cylindrical 
shape  of  the  calyx.      Virginiana,  Virginian  Clematis. 

Use.  —  Nearly  all  the  species  of  this  genus  are  ornamental,  and  are  culti- 
vated for  their  beauty. 

Order  II.    BERBERIDACE^. 

Shrubs  or   perennial   herbs.      Leaves    alternate    and    exstipulate. 

Flowers  regular,  mostly  3-merous 
and  hypogynous ;  sepals  and  petals 
imbricated  in  the  bud.  Stamens 
equal  in  number  to  the  petals,  and 
opposite  to  them.  Anthers  mostly 
opening  by  valves,  hinged  at  the 
top.  (In  the  Podophyllum,  by 
slits.)  One  pistil ;  style  short,  or 
wanting.  Fruit  a  berry  or  cap- 
sule.    Seeds  numerous. 

No.  of  genera,  19.     Species,  100. 

BERBERIS.L.  (Barberry.)  Leaves 
1-9  foliate.  Sepals  roundish,  6  in 
number,  enveloped  by  2-6  bract- 
lets.  Petals  6,  each  with  a  short 
claw,  above  which,  on  the  inside, 
are  two  glandular  spots.  Stamens  0, 
irritable ;  stigma  circular  and  flat- 
tened. Fruit  a  sour  berry,  1-several 
seeded.     Seeds  erect,  with  a  crus- 

taceous  covering.    Shrubs.   Wood  yellow.    Flowers  in  nodding  racemes, 

sometimes  drooping.     Fruit  a  sour  berry. 

B.  vulgaris,  L.  (Barberry.)  Leaves  few  on  the  new  shoots  of  the  season, 
nsnally  merely  branched  spines  from  whose  axils  the  leaves  of  the  next  season 
arise  in  rosettes,  of  obovate  oblong,  bristled,  toothed,  drooping,  many-flowered 
racemes  ;  petals  entire  ;  berries  oblong,  scarlet.  Thickets  and  near  dwellings. 
Eastern  New  England.     May  to  June.     From  Europe. 

Geographj.  —  Native  of  Europe,  naturalized  in  New  England.  B.  canaden- 
sis, native  in  the  AUeghenies,  a  curious  and  interesting  plant. 

Etymology.  —  Name  from  the  Arabic,  Berbery s. 

Use,  —  A  favorite  ornamental  shrub.  The  fruit  is  preserved,  and  the  inner 
bark  is  held  to  be  medicinal. 

PODOPHYLLUM,  L.  (May  Apple.  Mandrake.)  Early  floral  envelope 
composed  of  thre"e  foliaceous  bracts ;  6  petaloid  sepals,  petals  6  to  9. 
Stamens  double  the  number  of  petals.     Anthers  linear ;  stigma  large, 


Berberis  vulgaris  (Barberry). 


PAPAVERACE^.  43 

jteltate,  nearly  sessile.  Fruit  a  berry,  egg-shaped,  2  inches  in  length, 
fleshy,  l-celled,  many-seeded.  Root-stocks, creeping.  Koots  thick  and 
fibrous.     Perennial  herb. 

P.  peltatum,  L.  (May  Apple.  Mandrake.)  Stem  1  to  2  feet  high,  2-leave(l, 
1-flowered;  flower  in  the  crutch,  or  fork  of  the  stem,  nodding,  large,  the 
two  parts  of  the  stem  bearing  each  a  1-sided  leaf,  palmately  lobed.  Flower 
white.     May. 

Geography.  —  The  Podophyllum  is  found  sparingly  in  eastern  North  Amer- 
ica, from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Florida,  west  on  the  Kansas,  and  north  near 
Lake  Huron.     There  is  another  species  found  in  tlie  Iliinahiya  Mountains. 

Etymoloqif  and  History.  —  Podophy/lnm  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ttovs,  a 
foot,  and  <pv\Kov,  a  leaf,  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the  leaf  to  the  foot 
of  a  web-footod  bird.  Peltatum,  the  specittc  name,  comes  from  the  Latin  jx^lta, 
a  shield,  because  the  foot-stalk  is  attached  to  the  blade,  not  at  the  edge. 

How  this  plant  obtained  the  name  May  apple  is  not  apparent,  for  the  fruit 
does  not  ripen  in  May.  And  wliat  gave  rise  to  the  popular  name  mandrake 
is  equally  obscure.  It  is  possible  that  it  arose  from  the  simiKirity  of  the  fruit 
of  the  Mandragora  officinalis  of  Syria,  which  is  no  doubt  the  mandrake  spoken 
of  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Podophyllum  was  described,  figured,  and  its  emetic  properties  noted  by 
Mark  Catesby,  in  1731.     See  Hist,  of  Carolina. 

Use.  —  The  root  of  the  mandrake,  or  Podophyllum,  yields  to  the  chemist  a 
substance  known  as  Podophyllin.  This  substance  is  an  active  purgative,  and 
is  said  to  promote  especially  the  secretions  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  and  is 
largely  used  in  bilious  attacks.  It  is  also  used  as  an  emetic  and  a  vermifuge, 
and  as  an  alterative  in  rheumatic  affections.  It  has  been  for  years  the 
principal  purgative  administered  by  the  Thompsonian  practitioners,  and  is 
their  sub.stitute  for  calomel. 

Order  IIL    PAP  AVERAGES. 

Annual  or  perennial  herbs.  Juice  milky,  sometimes  colored.  Leaves 
alternate,  simple  or  pinnate,  lobed  or  toothed,  exstipulate.  Flowers 
regular,  terminal,  and  often  solitary.  Sepals  falling  soon,  usually  two. 
Petals  four,  sometimes  six,  rarely  more  ;  spreading  and  imbricated  in 
the  bud.  Stamens  numerous,  and  some  multiple  of  four.  Ovary  soli- 
tary; style  short;  stigmas  2  or  more,  star-shaped,  upon  the  flat  top 
of  the  ovary.  Fruit  pod-shaped,  with  tw^o  divisions,  or  capsular  with 
several  ])artitions.     Principal  genera,  about  24. 

PAPAVER,  Tourn.  (Poppy.)  Calyx  composed  of  2  thin  sepals,  falling 
soon  after  the  expansion  of  the  flower.  Corolla  4-petaled,  crumpled 
at  top.  Stamens  numerous,  attached  below  the  ovary,  l-celled,  many- 
ovuled.  Style  short,  expanding  into  a  broad,  persistent  stigma. 
Seed-vessel  varying  in  shape  from  an  oblate  to  a  prolate  spheroid, 
surmounted  by  the  broad,  persistent  stigma.  Seeds  kidney-shaped, 
pitted,  very  oily.  Leaves  alternate,  lol)ed,  or  cut ;  flowers  terminal, 
on  long  peduncles ;  buds  drooping. 

There  are  about  a  dozen  well-marked  species,  and  as  they  are  grown  from 
seed  they  sport  freely,  producing  many  varieties.     The  P.  somniferum,  and 


44 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


one  of  its  varieties,  called  the  black  poppy  (on  account  of  its  black  seeds),  are 
the  plants  that  produce  the  opium  of  commerce.  The  P.  somniferum  is  called 
the  white  poppy,  on  account  of  its  white  seeds.  Nos.  1,  2,  and  4  are  found  in 
and  near  cultivated  grounds  in  the  United  States. 

1.  P.  Khoeas,  L.  (Corn  Poppy  of  Great  Britain.)  Stem  hairy,  2  feet  high, 
many-flowered.     Leaves  glaucous,  pinnatifid,  incised.     Flowers  large,  showy, 

scarlet,  sometimes  variegated 
and  double,  seed-vessel  globose 
or  oval. 

2.  P.  dubium,  L.  (Long- 
leaved  Poppy.)  Stem  slender, 
2  feet  high,  clothed  with  spread- 
ing hairs.  Leaves  pinnate  ; 
leaflets  deep-toothed  and  cut. 
Flowers  light-red,  sometimes 
scarlet,  smaller  than  the  P. 
somniferum.  Flower-stalk  slen- 
der and  hairy ;  sepals  hairy ; 
seed-vessels  club-shaped. 

3.  P.  somniferum,  Linn. 
(Opium  Poppy.  Garden  Poppy.) 
Stem  1|  to3  feet  high,  erect, 
cylindrical,  glaucous  -  green, 
smooth  below,  with  scattered 
soft  hairs  near  the  summit, 
branching.  Leaves  alternate, 
clasping,  deeply  toothed  or  cut, 
whole  plant  smooth  and  glau- 
cous. Flowers  large,  terminal, 
bluish-purple  or  white  ;  petals  4, 
edged  at  base  with  a  purple  bor- 
der. Stamens  many,  attached 
to  the  receptacle ;  filaments 
bristle-like  ;  anthers  oblong, 
blunt,  flattened,  and  erect.  Fruit 
globose,  1  inch  to  1|  inches  in 
diameter,  crowned  with  the 
broad,  persistent,  radiating 
stigma;  the  margin  of  stigma 
deflexed.  Seed-vessel  1-celled, 
with  wedge-like  processes  ex- 
tending half-way  to  the  center, 
to  which  the  seeds  are  attached. 
Seeds    kidney-shaped,   whitish, 

numerous.  It  is  said  that  Linnaeus  counted  32,000  in  one  cell,  or  seed-vessel. 
The  seed-vessel,  when  wounded,  discharges  a  thick,  creamy  juice. 

4.  P.  orientals,  L.  Stem  3  feet  high,  rough,  terminated  with  one  rich  scarlet- 
colored  flower.  Leaves  pinnate,  rough  ;  leaflets  serrate.  Seed-vessel  subglobose 
and  smooth. 

Geography.  — Gardens  and  cultivated  grounds,  for  ornament.  (Adv.  from 
Levant.)     The  geographical  home  of  the  poppy  is  the  southern  edge  of  the 


Papaver  Rh(EAs  (Corn  Poppy). 


PAPAVEHACE^.  45 

uorth  temperate  zone;  but  it  has  spread  towanl^  both  the  uurtli  and  suuth. 
It  fruits  as  far  north  }is  tlie  forty-tifth  parallel,  hut  produces  most  largely  south 
of  the  thirty-fifth  degree.  The  great  opium  districts  are  the  valley  of  the 
(ianges,  Asiatic  'J  urkey,  Persia,  and  Egypt.  'J'he  best  is  produced  in  Asia 
Minor.  In  late  years  the  culti\atiou  has  so  extended  in  China  as  to  cause 
great  alarm  to  the  government. 

Etymology.  —  Papaver  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Celtic  word  papfi,  a 
name  applied  to  a  soft  food  fed  to  infants,  and  contracted  into  pap  in  Kurdish. 
The  seeds  of  the  poppy  were  boiled  in  pap,  to  induce  sleep  in  the  infant, 
hence  the  association.  SotnniJ'eruin  is  from  the  Latin  words  soinnus,  sleep, 
and /ero,  bear ;  hence  sleep-bearing,  alluding  to  the  sleep-producing  property 
of  opium.     Poppy,  tlie  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  papa. 

History.  —  The  medicinal  properties  of  the  p0])py  were  known  to  the  Romans, 
in  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  about  400  years  P.  C.  Vergil  also  speaks  of  the 
poppy.  History  informs  us  that  o])ium  was  first  prepared  at  Thebes,  and  called 
Thebaicnm.  The  juice  of  the  whole  plant  was  used  by  the  ancients,  and  called 
Meconium,  which  means  the  juice  of  the  poppy. 

^fode  of  Cultivation.  —  In  Turkey  the  poppy  is  sown  on  well-prepared  land 
in  rows,  and  thinned  out  so  as  to  stand  from  12  to  18  inches  apart,  and 
kept  free  from  weeds.  When  the  capsules  are  nearly  full-grown,  incisions 
are  made  in  them  in  the  evening,  with  a  guarded  knife,  Avhich  cuts  through 
the  cuticle  only.  The  milky  liquid  appears  on  the  surface  the  following  morn- 
ing, and  is  removed  with  a  spoon-like  instrument,  and  placed  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  from  which  it  is  poured  into  a  shallow,  open  brass  dish,  which  is  tilted 
on  the  side  to  allow  the  watery  part  of  the  liquid  to  drain  off.  It  is  then  ex- 
posed to  evaporation,  and  daily  turned  until  it  is  sufficiently  hardened  to  be 
kneaded  into  balls,  which  are  placed  upon  slats  in  large  rooms,  to  dry.  Here 
they  are  tended  and  turned  by  boys  till  they  are  dry  enough  to  pack,  when 
they  are  sent  to  Smyrna,  where  they  are  inspected  and  graded,  packed  into 
tin-lined  cases,  and  sent  to  market. 

The  value  of  the  Turkish  opium  depends  upon  the  amount  of  morphia  it 
contains.  Opium  brought  to  the  United  States  is  assayed  before  it  is  exposed 
for  sale,  and  if  found  to  contain  less  than  nine  jjer  cent  of  morphia,  is  rejected. 
The  cultivation  of  the  poppy  for  opium  has  been  attempted  in  the  United 
States  in  Vermont,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  California,  also  in  P'rance  and 
England,  and  opium  far  richer  in  mor])hia  tlian  the  Asiatic  opium  has  been 
produced,  but  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  labor  its  culti\ation  proved 
unprofital)le. 

Chemistry.  —  Opium,  the  product  of  the  poppy,  is  a  very  complex  substance, 
containing  a  large  number  of  bases  in  combination  with  sul})huric  and  meconic 
acids.  Morphine,  whose  formula  is  C17H19XO3,  and  Narcotiue,  whose  formula 
is  C22H.23NO.^,  are  the  most  abundant  and  important. 

The  best  known  of  the  others  are  :  — 

Codeine,     whose  formula  is  CipII.>,N03 
Thebaine,      "  "         "    Ci9H.>,N03 

Papaverine,  "  "         "    Cn lI.nX04 

Narceine,       "  "         "    C.,3H,,3N()4 

So  far  as  known,  the  medicinal  properties  of  ojiium  reside  in  these  six 
substances,  and   principally  in  the  first  two,  Morphine  and  Narcotine. 

Use.  —  As  a  mediiine  ojtium  is  administered  to  relieve  pain,  to  promote 
sleep,  to  allay   irritation  of   the  nervous  system,  ami   to  relax  the  muscles 


46  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

in  spasmodic  affections.  It  diminishes  secretions,  and  for  this  purpose  is 
largely  used.  So  important  has  it  become  that  it  has  passed  into  a  proverb 
that  a  physician  without  opium  is  like  a  soldier  without  weapons.  The 
most  important  preparations  of  opium  are  laudanum,  which  is  an  alcoholic 
tincture,  paregoric,  which  is  a  compound  of  opium,  benzoic  acid,  honey, 
oil  of  anise,  and  dilute  alcohol.  Soothing  syrups,  given  to  keep  children 
quiet,  contain  much  opium,  and  sometimes  cause  sickness,  and  occasionally 
insanity. 

The  seed  yields  an  oil  only  inferior  to  the  best  olive  oil,  and  is  used  both  as  a 
substitute  and  an  adulterant.  Opium  is  used  as  a  luxury  for  an  intoxicant,  either 
taken  in  small  doses  internally  or  smoked,  when  it*  is  mixed  with  the  hashish, 
or  gum  of  the  hemp,  and  with  grateful  spices.  If  indulged  in  to  excess,  it 
enfeebles  the  mind  and  enervates  the  body,  and  is  said  to  shorten  the  life  of 
the  offspring  of  the  debauchee.  It  enables  people  to  bear  fatigue  without 
food,  and  travellers  in  Turkey,  Syria,  and  India  carry  it  Mdth  them  for  that 
purpose.  Even  horses  are  sustained,  in  the  East,  under  its  influence.  It  is 
eaten,  not  smoked,  in  Persia  and  India;  smoking  it  is  a  recent  Chinese  inven- 
tion.    In  Amoy,  China,  fifteen  out  of  every  twenty  adults  smoke  it. 

Statistics.  — Great  quantities  of  opium  are  carried  into  China  and  vicinity. 
That  from  India  alone  is  over  14,000,000  pounds  annually.  Large  quantities 
go  overland  from  Persia  and  Turkey^  but  this  is  only  about  one  fifth  of  the 
amount  consumed  there,  as  they  produce  four  fifths  of  what  they  use,  making 
an  annual  consumption  of  71,001,840  pounds,  at  a  cost  of  $280,000,000. 


Order  IV.    CRUCIFERiE. 

Sepals  4.  Petals  4,  hypogynous,  arranged  opposite  to  each  other  in 
pairs,  forming  a  cross.  Stamens  6,  4  long  and  2  shorter.  Flowers 
perfect,  usually  in  a  terminal  raceme,  white  or  yellow- .  Ovary  sessile, 
usually  2-celled.  Stigmas  2.  Fruit  a  pod,  one  to  many  seeded,  seeds 
commonly  yielding  oil.  Mostly  herbs,  sometimes  woody.  Juice  watery, 
frequently  acid,  anti-scorbutic,  and  never  poisonous.  Stem  cylindrical, 
or  angular.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  occasionally  opposite,  entire, 
lobed,  or  dissected ;  upper  ones  sometimes  eared,  lower  ones  often 
runcinate,  for  the  most  part  without  stipules.     Genera,  172. 

CAPSELLA,  Medic.  Seed-vessel,  triangular-obcordate ;  valves,  boat- 
shaped  without  wings.  Seeds  many,  with  incumbent  cotyledons. 
Pod  flattened  contrary  to  partition.  Flowers  white.  A  common 
weed. 

C.  Bursa-pastoris.  (Shepherd's  Purse.)  Root-leaves  rosulate,  cut-lobed; 
stem-leaves  linear  lanceolate,  clasping,  sagittate ;  raceme  long.  Radical  leaves 
clustering,  subpinnatifid.  Waste  ground  about  dwellings.  Common  weed. 
April  to  September. 

Geography.  —  Naturalized  from  Europe,  where  it  is  a  troublesome  weed  in 
gardens  and  near  dwellings. 

Etymology.  —  Capsella  is  the  diminutive  of  Latin  capsa,  a  box. 

BRASSICA,  L.  (Turnip,  Mustard.)  Pod  long,  terete,  somewhat 
4-sided,  terminating  in  a  stout  1-seeded   beak  j    valves   1-3-veined ; 


CRUCIFER^. 


47 


seeds  in  a  single  row. 
or  pinnatitid. 


globular.     Flowers  yellow.     Lower  leaves  lyrate 


1.  B.  oleracea,  L.  (Cal)bage.)  Stem  slender,  much  branched,  appearing  the 
second  vcar,  .sniuutli,  from  two  to  three  i'eet  higli.  J^eaf  .smooth,  glaucous, 
twenty  inches  long  and  tiiree  to 
fifteen  wide,  the  first  year  grow- 
ing compactly,  forming  a  m<»re 
or  less  solid  head,  which  is  the 
edil)le  part;  the  stem  leaves  are 
lyrate  below,  entire  and  lanceo- 
late above.  Flowers  yellow,  and 
in  great  profusion,  terminal  on 
the  l)ranches.  Seed-vessels  cy- 
lindrical, and  curved.  A  bien- 
nial herb. 

Varieties.  —  This  plant  sports 
with  great  freedom,  yet  there 
are  a  number  of  well-marked 
varieties  that  propagate  with 
considerable  constancy. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  great 
Atlantic  cities  and  in  Europe 
there  are  about  a  dozen  distinct 
varieties  that  have  become  favor- 
ites with  market  gardeners  and 
amateurs,  arranged  under  the 
following  heads  :  — 

The  Common  or  }Vhite  Cab- 
bage, known  as  Sugar  Loaf, 
Flat  Dutch,  Drumhead,  Savoy, 
or  Wrinkled,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Red,  or  Purple  Cabbage, 
used  for  pickling,  etc. 

CauUJiower,       and        several 
others,  which  have  assumed  new  forms  under  cultivation.     It  seems  almost 
a  wonder  that  tliese  varieties  are  so  constant  as  they  are. 

In  Europe  the  number  of  va- 
rieties is  very  great.  As  all 
plants  raised  from  the  seed  sport 
more  or  less  freely,  it  is  no  won- 
der that  the  cabl)age  assumes  so 
many  forms. 

There  is  a  perennial  variety 
grown  in  the  Channel  Islands, 
called  the  cow  cabbage,  or  tree 
cabbage,  or  Bore  Cole,  which 
reaches  the  height  of  ten  feet. 
The  leaves  are  stripped  off  and 
fed  to  cattle,  and  the  stalks  are 
used  for  bean-poles,  canes,  etc. 
Bkassica  olekacea  (DrmuLeatI  Cabbage).  (Jtography. — The  cabbage  ar- 


0  ® 


Capsklla  BoRSA-PASTORts  (Shepherd's  Purse). 


48 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


rives  at  perfection  in  cool,  damp  climates,  but  is  successfully  cultivated  iu  the 
edge  of  the  torrid  zoue  during  the  wet,  cooler  season,  and  is  found  under 
cultivation  iu  a  broad  zoue  all  around  the  world,  north  of  the  twenty-fifth 
parallel,  and  has  been  carried  to  Australia  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

Etymology.  —  Brasslca  is  the  Latinized  Celtic  name  for  cabbage,  the  signi- 
fication of  which  is  not  apparent. 

(Jleracea,  the  specific  name  of  the  cabbage,  comes  from  the  Latin  olns  a  pot- 
herb. '     ^ 

History.  — The  home  of  this  plant  is  middle  and  western  Europe.  It  is 
not  known  Avhen  it  was  fir.^t  used  as  food,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
it  was  so  used  very  early  in  the  history  of  European  peoples ;  and  it  has  be- 
come so  great  a  favorite  that  its  spread 
throughout  the  world  is  limited  only  by 
civilization.  Wherever  colonization  has 
occurred,  climate  permitting,  the  cab- 
bage has  followed. 

The  ancients  knew  it.  Theophrastus, 
who  lived  three  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  wrote  of  it,  and 
Pliny  also  mentions  it  and  speaks  of  its 
cultivation. 

Use.  —  The  most  common  use  of  this 
plant  is  iu  the  character  of  a  pot-herb, 
and  it  is  universally  esteemed.  It  is 
also  prepared  as  a  salad,  under  the  name 
of  Cold  Chou,  which  has  been  corrupted 
into  Cold  Slaw.  The  Scotch  call  it 
Cauld  Kail.  In  Germany  and  all  north- 
ern European  nations  large  quantities 
of  cabbage  are  made  into  Sauer-kraut. 
It  is  chopped  fine  and  packed  tightly 
into  casks,  with  alternate  layers  of  salt, 
and  being  kept  under  heavy  pressure  it 
soon  arrives  at  a  state  of  fermentation. 
When  it  begins  to  ferment  it  is  fit  for  use,  and  is  removed  to  a  cool  place. 
It  is  eaten  with  oil  or  other  dressings,  and  is  a  very  important  article  of  food 
in  all  northern  Europe. 

Sauer-kraut  soup,  with  rye-bread  and  occasionally  a  little  pork,  is  the  daily 
food  of  the  Russian  peasant.  Cabbage  is  also  an  important  food  for  cattle, 
and  especially  for  milch  cows. 

2.  B.  alba,  Gray.  (White  Mustard.)  Stem  2  to  5  feet  high,  stouter  than 
No.  1,  much  branched.  Leaves  petioled,  lyrate,  or  subpinnate;  terminal  seg- 
ment large,  3-lobed.  Flowers  yellow,  in  racemes ;  petals  larger  than  in  No.  1, 
and  seeds  fewer.     June  to  August.     Fruits  in  August. 

3.  B.  nigra,  Koch.  (Black  Mustard.)  Stem  from  3  to  6  feet  high,  diffusely 
branched,  smooth  or  hairy.  Leaves  petioled,  and  variously  lobed  and  toothed ; 
green  above  and  lighter  beneath.  Flowers  in  slender  racemes,  greenish-yel- 
low. Seeds  dark-brown,  sharp  to  the  taste.  Annual.  June,  July.  Fruits 
in  August. 

4.  B.  juncea,  Hooker  and  Thompson.  A  coarser  species,  the  seeds  of  which 
are  rich  in  oil,  yielding  about  20  per  cent  of  their  weight. 


Bore  cole  (Tree  Cabbage). 


CRUCIFERiE.  49 

Geography.  — The  B.  juucea  is  largely  grown  in  India,  whence  the  seeds 
are  exported  to  England. 

Etymology. — The  si)ecific  name,  niyra,  is  Latin  for  l)lack,  due  to  the  black 
seed.  Alba,  Latin  for  white,  refers  to  the  white  seed.  Mustard,  the  popular 
name,  grew  out  of  the  eircunistance  that  mustard  was  prepared  for  the  table 
by  mixing  it  with  new  wine,  called  must. 

History.  —  When  or  where  mustard  was  first  cultivated  is  not  known.  It 
is  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures,  l)ut  it  is  now  believed  that  the  plant  referred 
to  was  Salvadora  Persica,  allied  to  the  olive,  whose  fruit  has  the  taste  and 
pungency  of  the  nuistard-seed. 

The  common  nmstard,  Sinapis,  is  mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  showing  that 
it  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Komans,  three  hundred  years  before 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era;  hence  it  has  been  under  cultivation  and  in 
use  more  than  two  thousand  years.  It  has  been  cultivated  throughout  the 
ages  of  the  Christian  era,  and  was  known  as  a  medicine  as  well  as  a  con- 
diment for  food.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  Chri.stian  era,  especially, 
it  has  been  used  more  largely  in  western  Europe  and  the  British  islands 
as  a  dressing  for  food  than  for  medical  purposes.  A  pleasant  oil  is  ol> 
tained  from  the  seed,  used  for  a  dressing  for  food  and  for  making  fine 
soaps. 

Preparation.  —  When  the  seeds  are  ground  and  mixed  with  warm  water, 
fermentation  takes  place,  and  furnishes  a  very  pungent  essential  oil. 

Table  mustard  is  prepared  by  mixing  and  grinding  together  the  seeds  of 
B.  nigra  and  B.  alba,  and  is  frecpiently  ground  into  a  paste  in  its  own  oil. 
The  species  from  which  the  sweet  oil  of  mustard  is  obtained  is  the  B.  juncea 
(Hook.),  largely  raised  in  India  and  Russia,  for  the  oil.  The  seeds  yield  by- 
pressure  about  20  per  cent  of  their  weight  of  oil. 

The  pungency  of  prepared  mustard  is  due  to  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil 
■which  does  not  exist  in  the  seed,  but  is  generated  by  the  powdered  seed  when 
mixed  with  warm  water,  and  arises  from  a  fermentation  due  to  the  presence 
of  two  substances,  known  as  myrosin  and  sinapin.  This  oil  is  the  most 
pungent  substance  known,  causing  strangulation  when  breathed.  It  is  not 
present  in  the  white  seed,  but  a  mixture  of  the  white  and  black  produces  it  in 
greater  abundance  than  the  black  alone,  and  it  is  found  that  tlie  mixture  of  both 
kinds  of  seeds  makes  the  best  mustard  for  table  use. 

Use. — The  oil  is  used  in  dressings,  for  salads,  etc.,  and  for  soap-makingv 
The  seeds  swallowed  whole  act  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant ;  in  larger  doses,  as  a 
laxative.  The  flour,  mixed  with  warm  water,  acts  as  a  cpiick  emetic.  The  seed 
is  ground  into  flour,  in  which  form  it  is  mixed  with  vinegar  or  oil,  or  both, 
into  a  paste  for  table  use,  as  a  condiment  for  meats.  Tlie  seeds  of  B.  alba  are 
u.sed  whole  for  flavoring  fancy  pickles.  It  is  also  employed  in  an  entire  state, 
to  ])reserve  cider  in  a  sweet  condition.  The  flour  is  used  for  a  poultice,  as  a 
counter-irritant  in  inflammations,  and  as  a  remedy  for  stomach  disorders  and 
nervous  affections. 

In  England  mustard  is  much  sown  as  a  crop  for  forage  and  for  green 
maimring.  When  sowed  at  the  rate  of  about  12  lbs.  to  the  acre  it  gives  an 
al)undant  crop  of  succulent  forage,  which  is  cut  before  the  seeds  begin  to 
mature,  and  fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine. 

5.  B.  campestris,  L.     (Field  Turnip.)     iStem  slender,  appearing  the  second 

year,  18  to  30  inches  high,  nmch  branched,  smooth.    Lower  leaveslyrate.  3  to  7 

inches  long;  lobes  toothed,  somewhat  iiairy  and  glaucous  underneath,  clas})ing 

and  terminating  in  an  abrupt  acuniiuatiun.     Calyx  closed.     Corolla  yellow, 

i'H.  Fl.  —  5 


50 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Brassica   campestris  (Field  Turnip). 


half-inch  in  diameter,  spreading.     Seed-vessel  1  to  2  inches  long.     Root  some- 
what in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  or  spindle-shaped,  fleshy,  3  to  10  inches 

in  diameter,  and  6  to  1 2  inches 
long,  terminating  in  a  slender, 
tapering  radicle,  besprinkled 
with  fibrous  rootlets.  Biennial 
herb. 

Under  B.  campestris  there 
are  several  forms.  The  most 
important  is  the  sub-species  : 

Napa-brassica,  L.  var.  ruta- 
baga. (Rutabaga.  Swedish 
Turnip.  Russia  Turnip.)  Root 
subglobose,  flesh  yellowish. 

6.  B.  rapa,  L.  var.  depressa. 
(Flat  Turnip.  Red  Top  Tur- 
nip. Strap-leaved  Turnip.) 
Stem  and  leaves  as  above  in 
No.  5,  except  that  the  leaves 
are  frequently  narrow,  long, 
and  linear ;  the  root  flattened 
at  the  poles,  or  flat  above  and 
convex  beneath ;  radicle  long 
and  slender.  A  favorite  va- 
riety for  summer  use. 

The  turnip  sports  freely, 
forming  many  varieties.  The  Swedish  turnip  varies  in  color  and  size,  but 
very  little  in  quality.  It  is  yellow  or  white.  A  recent  sport  is  called  the 
White  Stone. 

There  are  other  varieties  and  forms 
of  considerable  constancy,  but  those 
already  described  are  the  most  im- 
portant. 

Geography.  —  The  turnip  is  found 
under  cultivation  in  Greece,  Egypt, 
and  Syria,  but  especially  in  middle 
and  northern  Europe,  and  is  said  to 
be  indigenous  to  Sweden,  Russia,  and 
Siberia.  It  was  introduced  by  Euro- 
pean colonists  into  North  America, 
and  is  largely  grown  all  over  the 
middle  and  northern  United  States 
and  southern  Canada.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  by  the  British  into 
India  and  Australia. 

Etymology.  —  Campestris,  the  spe- 
cific name,  is  from  the  Latin  cam- 
pester,  inhabiting  an  open  place,  or 
field.  The  specific  name,  Rapa,  is 
from  the  Latin  rapa,  a  turnip.  Tur- 
nip or  Turnep  is  from  the  old  French  Brassica  rapa  (Flat  Turuip). 


CRUCIFER^..  51 

(our,  turned,  or  round,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  nope,  white,  signifying  round  and 
white.  Sicec/is/i  and  Ixussia  are  names  due  to  the  countries  wliere  these 
varieties  have  originated  or  where  tliey  are  largely  grown.  F/ai  lop  is  named 
from  its  form. 

History.  —  When  the  turuip  was  first  cultivated,  or  where  it  was  first  used  for 
food,  history  does  not  reveal  The  Koniaus  were  ac(juaiuted  with  it.  Tliny 
relates  that  single  specimens  sometimes  weighed  forty  pouuds.  This  seems 
remarkable,  since  the  turnip  does  not  at  the  present  day  grow  well  in  warm, 
dry  climates,  neither  does  it  arrive  at  perfection  in  very  cold  regions.  The  Brit- 
ish Isles  and  the  low  countries  of  western  Europe  are  best  suited  to  it.  It  also 
grows  well  in  the  middle  parts  of  the  north  temperate  zone  in  North  America, 
to  which  it  was  taken  by  English  colonists.  Theophrastus  and  I)io.scorides 
both  speak  of  the  turuip.  It  was  taken  to  Britaiu  by  the  Romans,  most  likely 
under  Agricola. 

But  little  attention  seems  to  have  been  given  to  it  till  the  early  part  of  the 
17th  century,  when  it  was  an  important  crop  in  England.  It  reciuires  rich, 
dee))  soil,  and  a  damp,  cool  climate,  but  grows  well  in  damp,  warm  countries. 
I)e  Caudolle  thinks  tlie  bulk  of  evidence  shows  that  it  is  a  native  of  western 
Europe,  or  possibly  of  Siberia. 

Use.  —  The  turnip  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  root  vegetables ;  it 
is  prepared  for  the  table  in  many  ways,  and  is  largely  employed  for  feeding 
stock.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  especially  valuable 
for  milch  cows. 

It  has  been  sliced,  dried,  ground  into  powder,  and  used  to  adulterate  flour 
for  making  bread. 

Uavy  analyzed  the  turnip,  and  found  it  to  contain  3  per  cent  of  nutritive 
matter. 

7.  B.  napus,  L.  (Rape.)  This  species  differs  from  B.  campestris  in  the  form 
of  its  root,  which  is  long  and  slender,  and  usually  carrot-shaped ;  seed-vessels 
spreading,  foliage  more  abundant ;  otherwi.se  as  B.  campestris. 

Geogrophi/.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  rape  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  turnip  and  cabbage.  Its  home  is  no  doubt  in  the  regions  of  midiUe 
and  northern  Europe  and  Siberia.  It  is  found  wild  in  Sweden  also,  but  mav 
have  escaped  from  cultivation. 

Etymolofjii. — Napus  is  the  ancient  Latin  name  for  turnip,  and  signifies  a 
shape  which  tapers  both  ways  from  the  middle. 

History.  —  How  long  the  rape  has  been  in  use  as  an  economic  plant  is 
not  known.  Dioscorides  and  Pliny  both  sjjeak  of  it  under  different  names,  and 
I)e  Caudolle  thinks  that  it  and  the  turnip  have  been  cultivatetl  for  more  than 
4000  years. 

Use.  —  In  northern  Europe  and  especially  in  Russia  it  is  raised  in  large  crops 
for  its  .seed,  of  which  an  oil  is  made  for  lubricating  j)urpo^es,  and  also  for  illu- 
minating. When  carefully  refined  it  is  emj)loye(l  for  culinary  and  table  uses 
At  the  world's  e.x])Osition  in  I'liiladelphia  in  1870,  a  very  fine  rape  oil  was  on 
exhibition  in  the  Rnssian  agricultural  dej)artnient.  The  refuse  is  pressetl  into 
cakes  called  ra])e  cake,  and  fed  to  cattle  and  poultry.  The  rape  seed  is  fre- 
quently mixed  with  turnip,  cabbage,  aiul  other  cruciferous  seeds.  To  obtain 
the  oil,  the  seeds  are  grouiul  or  l)eateu  into  paste,  put  into  hempen  bags,  and 
placed  between  grooved  planks  standing  in  an  n|)right  position,  so  arranged 
as  to  be  nearer  together  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  The  plnnks  are  then 
forced  together  by  wedges,  which  forces  the  oil  out.  This  oil  constitutes  a 
very  important  article  of  food  among  the  Hussiau  peasantry. 


52 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


COCHLEARIA,  Tournefort.  (Horse  Radish.)  Calyx  equal  at  the  base. 
Sepals  short  and  slightly  spreading.  Petals  entire,  larger  than  the 
sepals,  with  short  claws.  Style  short,  occasionally  long.  Pod  globular 
or  egg-shaped ;  valves  convex,  nerve  dorsal.  Seeds  usually  few,  obo- 
vate,  flattened,  arranged  in  two  rows  in  each  cell.  Leaves  large,  ob- 
long, lower  ones  pinnate,  those  on  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  entire. 
Root  perennial. 

1.  C.  armoracia,  L.  (Horse  Radish.)  Stem  2  to  4  feet  in  height,  striate, 
much  branched  ;  branches  ascending.  Leaves  large  and  thick ,  radical  ones 
12  to  18  inches  long;  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  either  pinnate,  crenate, 
or  toothed,  on  long  stalks  6  to  12  inches  in  length;    upper  leaves  on  short 

petioles,    sometimes    sessile,   entire,    elliptical, 

or  strap-shaped.     Flowers  in  corymbs,  white. 

Seed-vessel  egg-shaped,  seldom  ripening  seed. 

Root  large,  fleshy,  and  edible,  and  of  very  rapid 

growth.     Flowers  in  June. 

2.  C.  officinalis,  L.  (Scurvy  Grass)  The  leaf 
has  the  shape  of  a  spoon,  hence  the  generic 
name.  Sometimes  cultivated  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  other  species,  but  they  are 
not  cultivated. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the 
Cochlearia  is  the  middle  and  southern  edges 
of  the  north  temperate  zone,  extending  from 
Great  Britain  to  western  Asia,  and  northeast 
America. 

Etymology.  —  Cochlearia,  the  generic  name, 
is  from  the  Latin  cochlear,  a  spoon,  due  to  the 
shape  of  the  leaf  of  the  C.  officinalis.  Armo- 
racia, the  specific  name,  is  derived  from  Armor- 
ica,  a  province  in  France  where  the  Horse 
Radish  was  thought  to  be  native ;  but  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  Armorica  is  not  the  home 
of  this  plant,  hence  the  name  did  not  arise  in  that  way,  and  the  derivation  is 
obscure.  Horse  Radish,  the  common  name,  signifies  a  strong  Radish,  due  to  the 
very  pungent  taste  of  the  root.  Officinalis  means  "  of  the  shops,"  or  "  useful." 
History.  —  It  is  not  certain  that  this  plant  was  known  to  the  ancients. 
Pliny,  in  the  first  century,  applied  the  name  to  another  plant.  It  was  taken 
to  Great  Britain  before  Cesar's  invasion,  and  has  become  naturalized,  and  is 
growing  freely  and  propagating  itself ,  without  cultivation,  throughout  temper- 
ate Europe.  It  was  brought  to  northeastern  America  by  colonists,  Avhere  it 
is  cultivated,  and  is  also  naturalized.  It  is  an  important  plant  to  the  market 
gardener. 

Use.  —  The  medical  properties  of  the  Horse  Radish  are  stimulant,  dia- 
phoretic, diuretic,  and  anti-scorbutic,  and  when  applied  externally,  rubefacient. 
It  is  administered  in  paralysis,  rheumatism,  dropsy,  and  in  other  complaints  to 
excite  the  secretions. 

As  a  food,  the  root  is  esteemed  for  flavoring  and  preparing  sauces  for  meats 
and  fish.  It  is  prepared  by  grating  the  root  and  preserving  it  with  vinegar.  It 
is  adulterated  with  grated  turnip,  which  renders  it  more  mild  and  palatable. 


Cochlearia  armoracia 
(Horse  Radisli). 


CRUCIFER^. 


53 


ISATIS,  L.  (Woad.)  ]\)d  or  silicle  oviil  or  elliittical,  flai,  one-seeded  ; 
valves  boat-shaped,  sul)dehiscent  ;  cotyledons  accuuil)ent.     Biennial. 

1.  I.  tinctoria,  L.  (Woad.)  Stem  4  icct  Iiio;!!,  half  an  inch  in  dianieter. 
much  hraiuhed.  Leaves  thick,  liglit-green,  oval,  subclaspiug,  ears  rounded, 
radical  leaves  petioled,  and  10  to  12  indies 
long  and  6  wide,  abundant,  giving  the 
plant  a  coarse  appearance.  Flowers  small, 
yellow,  and  in  terminal  panicles.  Ai»i)ear- 
ing  in  July. 

Gcorp-aphi/.  —  Woad  is  indigenous 
throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
(ireat  Britain.  It  is  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
in  the  Azores  and  Canary  Islands. 

Etymology  and  History. — Isatis  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  word  lo-o^w,  make 
smooth  or  even,  because  it  was  supposed 
to  remove  roughness  of  the  skin.  It  has 
been  called  (jlaslum,  from  the  Celtic  word 
tjlas,  blue.  The  ancient  Britons,  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion  by  Julius  Ci^sar, 
adorned  their  bodies  by  painting  the  forms 
of  animals  and  other  objects  on  them  with 
woad,  hence  the  Romans  gave  them  the 
name  of  Picts,  or  pictured  men. 

Woad  imparts  a  permanent  blue  color, 
the  shade  depending  upon  the  quantity,  and  manner  of  using  it. 
of  giving  a  very  dark  l)lue,  approaching  a  blue-ltlack. 

Cue.  —  Notwithstanding  the  inroads  tliat  indigo  has  made  upon  the  use  of 
woad,  on  account  of  the  permanency  t)f  the  color  imparted  by  woad  it  still 
holds  an  important  place  among  coloring  substances.  Dyers  are  in  the  habit 
of  mixing  it  with  indigo ;  the  dyes  are  said  to  coalesce,  and  strengthen  each 
other.     Its  use  is  rapidly  dying  out  in  England. 


Isatis  tinctoria  (Woad) 


It  is  cajiable 


NASTURTIUM,  R.  Br.  Sepals  4.  regular,  and  equal  at  base. 
Petals  regular,  white,  seed-vessel  or  silique  tapering,  cylindrical, 
short,  and  cuived  upwards.  Seeds  small,  irregularly  arranged  in  a 
double  row.  Leaves  alternate.  Herbs  which  delight  in  wet  places, 
or  in  the  edges  of  the  waters  of  slowly  flowing  streams. 

1.  N.  officinale,  R.  Rr.  (Water  Cress.)  Stem  perennial.  6  to  18  inches  long, 
branched,  prostrate,  and  assurgent.  Leaves  pinnately  divided  ;  leaflets  very 
inconstant,  ranging  in  number  from  '?  to  h  pairs,  and  a  terminal  one,  rounded, 
usually  entire,  and  glabrous,  occasionally  sinuately  toothed.  Flowers  in  June. 
Fruits  in  July. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  this  plant  is  very  wide,  as 
is  the  ca!<e  with  all  economic  plants  which  follow  colonization.  It  grows 
all  over  Europe,  in  Palestine,  Hindustan,  Japan,  tlie  islands  of  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific,  wherever  I-'uropean  colonies  have  been  established. 

Etymology.  —  Na.<itnrtiin7i  is  derived  from  the  Latin  nasus,  the  nose,  and  tortu.'^, 
a  tivisting,  said  to  be  due  to  tlie  effect  which  its  pungency  has  upon  the  nose 


54 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


when  taken  in  large  mouthfuls.  Officinalis,  Latin,  signifies  that  the  plant 
helongs  to  commerce,  or  the  shops.  Wafer  Cress,  the  common  name,  comes 
from  the  Latin  cresco,  grow,  and  "  water  "  allndes  to  its  habit  of  growing  in  the 
water. 

History. — The  home  of  the  Nasturtium  is  Europe  and  northern  Asia. 
Where  or  when  it  was  first  introduced  into  the  catalogue  of  table  vegeta- 
bles is  not  known.     It  was  noticed  by  Dioscorides  and  Pliny,  and  therefore 

must  have  been  in  use 
in  Italy  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  has  been 
seen  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River,  in 
North  America.  It  was 
brought  to  eastern  North 
America  probably  by 
colonists  from  Holland, 
where  it  is  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

Use.  —  It  is  eaten  as 
a  salad,  and  used  to 
garnish  dishes  of  meats 
and  of  fish.  It  is  served 
always  without  cooking, 
eaten  with  salt,  or  a  vin- 
egar dressing,  and  is  a 
popular  salad-plant  with 
oysters  and  game. 

Note.  —  The  nasturtium  of  the  garden  is  Trop^olum,  which  belongs  to  the 
geranium  family,  and  is  an  immigrant  from  Peru.  It  has  showy  yellow 
flowers,  and  is  cultivated  both  for  ornament  and  its  fruit,  which  is  curiously 
curved  and  ribbed  The  fruit  is  plucked  before  it  is  mature,  and  pickled. 
It  has  a  pungency  similar  to  the  Nasturtium,  hence  its  common  name. 


Nasturtium  officinale  (Water  Cress). 


Order  V.     CAPPARIDACE^. 

Sepals  4—8,  free  or  sometimes  cohering.  Petals  hypogynous  or  peri- 
gynous,  4-8,  sometimes  wanting.  Stamens  6  or  many,  hypogynous 
or  perigynous.  Ovaries  generally  stipulate,  1-celled,  or  spuriously  2-8 
celled,  with  parietal  placentae,  ovules  curved.  Flowers  usually  perfect. 
Herbs,  shrubs,  or  small  trees.  Leaves  simple,  or  digitate  and  spiny. 
The  Capparis  is  a  small  shrub.     Number  of  genera,  23. 

CAPPARIS,  L.  Calyx  divided  into  4  spreading,  ovate  sepals. 
Petals  4,  alternate  with  the  sepals,  wedge-strap  shape,  longer  than 
the  sepals,  spreading  or  recurved.  Stamens  numerous,  inserted  on 
a  subconical  receptacle,  free,  anthers  attached  lengthwise  along  their 
backs  to  the  filaments,  and  the  cells  turned  out.  Pistil  one,  longer 
than  the  stamens.     Shrub. 

1.  C.  spinosa,  L.  (Caper.)  Stem  from  2  to  3  feet  long,  straggling  or 
prostrate,  very  mucli  branched,  bark  white.     Leaves  ovate  or  orbicular,  thick. 


CArPARIDACETP: 


66 


glaucous,  and  deciduous.  2  crooked  spines  appearing  at  the  liase  of  the  leaf- 
stalk. Flowers  on  long  stalks,  white,  numerous  and  axillary,  large  and  showy, 
but  without  fragrance.  Tetals  much  longer  than  the  sepals,  wedge  strap- 
shape,  spreading  or  recurved.  Stamens  sometimes  GO  in  number,  about  as 
long  as  the  petals.  Fruit  a  leathery,  obovoid,  succulent  capsule,  berry -like ; 
seeds  numerous,  kidney-shaped.     .Shrub.     Flowers  from  June  to  August. 

2.   C.  soldada  is  found  in  central  Africa,  bearing  a  fruit  resembling  the  cur- 
rant, and  is  eaten  fresh  from  the  bush,  and  also  dried. 

■i.   C.  ferruginea  has  a  rusty,  narrow  leaf.     It  is  found  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  berries  have  a  jjungent,  mustard-like  taste,  and  ou  that  account  the  plant 
is  called  the  mustard  shrub. 

Geography.  —  The  Capparis  grcjws  and  fruits  in  southern  Europe,  and  all 
the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  market  is  supplied  from  the  planta- 
tions and  wild  copses 
of  Sicily  and  Malta, 
and  other  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean, 
and  from  the  south  of 
France.  It  loves  the 
rocks,  and  its  habit  is 
well  pictured  in  the 
following  quotation  : 

"  This  beautiful 
plant  is  rooted  in 
many  a  crevice  of  the 
palace  of  the  Cagsars 
at  Rome ;  it  spreads 
its  green,  glossy  leaves 
and  starry  white  flow- 
ers, with  their  long, 
purple  anthers,  over 
the  ruins  of  that  once 
stirring  place,  the  Col- 
osseum, and  clothes 
the  arches  of  the  tem- 
ple of  peace  with  fe.s- 
toons  which  adorn 
without    hiding    their 

beauty;  the  ancient  tombs  of  the  Campagna  are  frequentlv  hung  with  it  • 
rocks  of  Naples  are  favorable  to  it;  and  it  has  fixed  itself  1.0^  onlv  on 
mouldering  cliffs  of  Malta,  but  in  the  narrow  crevices  of  the  fortification." 

Etymology. —  Capparis  is  Latin,  through  the  Greek  Kdinrirapis,  from  the 
Arabic  Knhar,  the  Persian  name  of  this  plant,  the  meaning  of  which  is  not 
known.  Spinosa  is  Latin,  meaning  prickly,  and  is  due  to  the  thorns  that  ap- 
pear at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalks.  Caper,  the  popular  name,  is  a  corrui)tion 
of  capparis,  the  generic  name. 

ffistory.  —  T]u-  nxper  was  well  known  to  the  (ireeks  and  Romans,  and  was 
mentioned  by  the  early  writers  on  natural  history,  especiallv  Theophrastus. 
Dioscorides,  and  Pliny.  The  capparis  is  among  the  plants  known  to  the  ancient 
Hebrews  as  thorns.  'I'he  Jlower-buds  were  preserved  in  salt  or  vinegar,  and 
offered  to  gue.sts  just  before  dinner  as  an  excitant  to  tiie  appetite.    It  is  dainied 


>^^^ 


SPINOSA  (Caper). 


the 
the 


56  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

by  some  authors  that  this  is  the  plant  called  in  the  Scriptures  Hyssop,  and  the 
one  used  to  sprinkle  the  doorposts  and  lintels  with  blood,  in  Egypt;  also  the 
plant  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  wisdom  of  bulomon,  when  it  is  stated 
that  he  knew  all  the  plants,  from  the  "  cedar  of  Lebanon  unto  the  Hyssop 
that  springetli  out  of  the  wall :  "  but  this  has  been  disputed,  and  claims  have 
been  made  for  a  genus  of  the  mint  family. 

The  flower-buds  are  collected  by  women  and  children  (whose  hands  and 
wrists  are  torn  by  the  sharp  thorns  by  which  every  leaf-stalk  is  guarded), 
placed  in  salt  or  vinegar,  and  in  Italy  the  fruit  in  an  unripe  state  is  also 
gathered  and  prepared  just  as  the  undeveloped  flower-buds  are.  It  was  car- 
ried to  the  south  of  France  by  Greek  colonists,  and  has  been  grown  largely 
since  that  time  near  Marseilles.  It  grows  best  in  rocky  places  or  among 
ruins.     Gerard  says  it  refuses  to  be  domesticated. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  qualities  of  the  caper  are  stimulant,  anti-scorbutic, 
aperient,  diuretic,  and  stomachic. 

In  Italy,  the  unripe  fruit,  which  is  very  pungent,  is  eaten  not  only  as  a  pickle 
but  as  a  salad,  and  is  also  cooked  Avith  meat.  The  undeveloped  flower-buds 
are  sent  abroad,  and  are  used  in  this  country  to  flavor  sauces  and  dressings 
for  boiled  meats. 

The  fruit  of  the  C.  soldada  resembles  currants,  and  is  eaten  in  the  same 
manner.  The  fruit  of  the  C.  ferruginea  has  the  taste  of  mustard,  and  is 
largely  used  as  a  condiment  for  meats. 

Order  VL    VIOLACE-^]. 

Flowers  perfect,  irregular,  axillary,  mostly  solitary,  2  bracts, 
usually  at  the  base  or  near  the  middle  of  pedicel.  Sepals  5,  mostly 
free,  persistent.  Petals  5,  li}^3ogynous,  alternate  with  the  sepals, 
unequal,  lower  one  dissimilar  and  prolonged  into  a  hollow  spur,  below 
the  insertion.  Stamens  5,  inserted  on  the  bottom  of  the  calyx ;  fila- 
ments short,  dilated,  usually  free.  Ovary  free,  sessile;  style  simple. 
Fruit  a  capsule,  many-seeded,  with  parietal  placentae.  Seeds  ovoid,  or 
globose ;  testa  membranous.     Leaves  alternate,  stipulate.     Herb. 

No.  of  genera,  about  21. 

VIOLA,  L.  (Violet.)  Sepals  5,  unequal,  and  eared  at  base.  Petals  5, 
unequal,  the  broad  one  spurred  at  base,  2  lateral  ones  equal.  Sta- 
mens 5,  approaching ;  filaments  free  ;  anthers  connate  ;  capsule  1 -celled, 
3-valved ;  seeds  attached  at  the  middle  of  the  valves.  Pedicels  angular, 
solitary,  1-flowered,  curved  at  the  summit.  Flowers  nodding  in  an 
inverted  position.    Perennial  herbs. 

1.  V.  blanda,  Willd.  (Delicate  Violet.)  Leaves  cordate  or  kidney-shaped, 
crenate,  toothed  or  entire,  early  ones  orbicular,  flat  and  thin,  head  of  sinus 
rounded.  Flowers  Avhite,  odorous,  and  small ;  sepals  ovate ;  petals  ovate,  ob- 
tuse, frequently  striped  with  purple,  slightly  bearded.  Stigma  depressed, 
margined.     April  and  May. 

Geography.  —  Found  in  wet  jdaces  from  Canada  to  Peunsylvauia. 

2  V.  Canadensis,  L.  (Canada  Violet.)  Stem  9  to  18  inches  high,  smooth, 
slender.  Leaves  prominently  heart-shaped,  and  acuminate  or  pointed,  irreg- 
ularly serrate,  lower  ones  on  long  petioles ;    stipules  large,  ovate-lanceolate, 


VIOLACE^. 


57 


entire.  Flowers  large,  blue  without,  nearly  white  within  ;  iipper  petals  marked 
with  i)lue  lines,  side  ones  bearded  ;  spur  short ;  stigma  short,  and  without  beak  ; 
sepals  lanceolate.     May  to  August. 

Ueof/rapltij.  —  British  America   to  Carolina,   west    to  Colorado,   Montana, 
and  Wyoming.     Kich  woods,  not  rare. 


\'ar.  Sylvestris. 
root,  sending  off 


3.  V.  canina,  L.  (V.  Muhlenbergii,  Torr.)  (Dog  \'iolet.) 
Hegel.  Stem  leafy,  2  to  8  inches  high,  many  from  the  same 
creeping  branches.  Leaves  at  the  root  kidney-shaped  or 
orbicular  heart-shaped,  upper  ones  acuminate ;  all  crenate, 
thin,  veins  prt)minent,  stipules  large,  lanceolate,  fringe- 
toothed.  Flowers  pale-purplish,  showy  ;  petals  obovate,  ob- 
tuse, lateral  ones  bearded  ;  spur  tapering,  half  as  long  as 
petals  ;  stigma  rostrate.     May  to  June. 

Geography.  —  Eastern  North  America,  from  Labrador  to 
Florida,  and  west  to  Colorado.  In  damp  meadows,  edges 
of  swamps,  and  fringes  of  damp  woods. 

4.  V.  hastata,  Mx.  (Halberd-leaved  Violet.)  Stem 
slender,  erect,  simple,  nearly  smooth,  leafy  above,  6  to  10 
inches  high.  Leaves  on  long  petioles,  cordate,  lanceolate, 
or  hastate,  acuminate,  dentate;  lobes  obtuse,  stipules  mi- 
nute, ovate.  Flowers  yellow,  peduncles  shorter  than  the  Viola  blanda 
leaves ;  lower  petal  broader,  3-sub-lobed,  lateral  ones  slightly  (Delicate  Violet), 
bearded.     May. 

Geography.  —  Tenn.  to  Florida,  mountains  of  Peuu.  and  northern  Ohio.  In 
pine  woods,  not  common. 

5.  V.  lanceolata,  L.  (Lance-leaved  Violet.)  Quite  smooth,  lanceolate,  taper- 
ing into  a  long  petiole,  obscurely  toothed,  or  entire.  Leaves  generallv  a  little 
longer  than  the  scapes,  4-6  inches  high.  Flowers  white,  inodorous,  striped 
with  purple  lines;  spur  short.  Sepals  lanceolate;  petals  beardless.  April  to 
June. 

(tfography.  —  From  Canada,  throughout  eastern  U.  S.,  in  damj)  places. 

^^    6.  V.  odorata,  L.  (Sweet  Violet.    English  Violet.)   Leaves  heart-shaped,  ere 
nate,  sj^aringly  hairy,  stipules  lance-shaped  and  toothed.     Flower-stalks  taller 

than  the  leaves.  Flowers  purjde  and 
fragrant.  Se])als  obtuse ;  lateral  petals 
with  a  hairy  line. 

'i'here  are  several  varieties,  l)ased  up- 
^,__^,  -r-^    ^1  -  ^"  ^^^^  color  and  size  of  the  Howers  :  — 

^\  \;^?n^-'''^^^^-^^'~"^  "•    '''irpl*' '"^weet  Violet. 

^fcl^^^T'-^  ^/fc4j^\  "•    ^^''''^^  Sweet  Violet. 

c.    IJlue  Sweet  N'iolet. 
By  cultivation   all   tlie.<;e  frequently 
bp,ri>ni«>  double  ;  they  are  great  favorites 
with  florists 

(ito<ini}iliii.  -     Indigenous  throughout 
Europe;   ft)und  also  in  some  i)arts  of 
China.  .lapan.  and    India;    it    has   es- 
caped from  cnltivation,  and  is  frequent 
in  the  fields  near  the  great  cities  of  the  United  States. 


ViOLA   ODORATA  (Sweet  Violet) 


58  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

7.  V.  palmata,  L.  (Hand-shaped  Violet.)  Leaves  varying  from  broad 
cordate  to  reniforni,  repand  toothed,  sparingly  cucullate  at  base.  Whole  plant 
slightly  pubescent.  Early  leaves  purple  underneath.  Growing  in  dry  grounds 
and  open  woods.     6  to  10  inches  high. 

Form  No.  2.  Early  leaves  broad  cordate,  or  reniform,  somewhat  fleshy,  on 
short  petioles,  under  side  frequently  purple,  serrate  toothed,  usually  2  or 
.3  in  number,  rarely  many ;  later  leaves  usually  2-4  in  number,  on  long 
petioles,  3-lobed,  the  middle  lobe  sometimes  lanceolate,  occasionally  with 
parallel  sides,  and  terminating  in  a  blunt  angle,  with  lateral  lobes  hatchet- 
shaped,  with  the  margins  sometimes  serrate  toothed,  sometimes  deeply  cut 
into  2  or  3  divisions.  The  whole  leaf  is  frequently  divided  into  narrow 
parts,  approaching  V.  pedata.  Again,  the  whole  margin  will  be  made  up  of 
divisions,  varying  in  number  from  6  to  12,  and  from  an  eighth  to  half  an 
inch  in  width,  the  middle  ones  generally  the  broadest,  and  the  incisions  ex- 
tending half-way  into  the  blade.  The  early  leaves  are  usually  smooth,  the 
later  ones  covered  with  pubescence.  Flowers  apetalous  and  frequently 
subterranean. 

Geography.  —  Dry  grounds  and  open  woods.  May  to  August.  6  to  12  inches 
high. 

The  author  watched  this  plant  closely  throughout  five  successive  seasons  in 
the  same  localities,  and  it  seems  to  depart  from  the  distinctive  characters  of 
V.  cucullata  as  its  distance  from  damp  ground  increases.  He  placed  speci- 
mens with  divided  leaves  in  the  lawn  of  the  Freehold  (N.  J.)  Institute,  in  damp, 
rich  soil,  and  in  the  course  of  four  years  they  were  free  from  pubescence,  the 
leaves  entire,  and  in  every  way  identical  with  V.  cucullata  growing  within  ten 
feet  of  it.  He  also  saw  specimens  which  had  been  transplanted  into  a  drv, 
gravelly,  rather  sterile  border,  in  Flushing,  on  Long  Island,  and  they  retained 
their  pubescence  and  divided  leaves. 

8.  V.  cucullata,  Ait.  (Common  Blue  Violet.)  Plant  6  to  12  inches  high, 
flower-stalks  frequently  as  long  or  longer  than  the  petioles.  Leaves  glabrous, 
cordate,  rolled  in  at  the  base,  serrate-crenate,  or  remotely  toothed,  those  ap- 
pearing first  frequently  kidney-shaped,  and  purple  underneath  near  the  base. 
Flowers  blue,  large,  late  ones  apetalous  and  subterranean.  Sepals  linear, 
lanceolate;  upper  one  smooth,  the  others  bearded;  lateral  ones  obovate; 
s])ur  short  and  rounded.     April  to  July. 

Geography.  —  The  distribution  of  this  species  is  very  broad.  It  is  found  in 
the  temperate  zone  quite  across  the  continent  of  North  America. 

Var.  striata,  Willis.  (Streaked  or  Spotted  Violet.)  Four  to  eight  inches 
high.  Leaves  cordate,  frequently  reniform,  early  ones  entire  or  crenate, 
purple  underneath  near  the  base,  and  glabrous,  later  ones  becoming  more 
and  more  clothed  with  hairs,  and  taking  on  a  lobed  form  as  the  season  ad- 
vances, or  as  the  plant  creeps  up  dry  hillsides  from  damp  and  lower  grounds. 
Flowers  few  or  many,  pure  white,  marked  Avith  purple  lines ;  sometimes  sprin- 
kled with  purple  dots,  or  splashed  with  large,  irregular,  or  ragged  purple  spots, 
but  the  lines  are  always  present.  Petals  very  irregular  as  to  size,  even  in  the 
same  plant ;  sometimes  very  small,  and  sometimes  irregularly  cut,  toothed,  or 
even  fringed ;  later  flowers  cleistogamous. 

Geography.  —  Found  sparingly  near  Freehold,  N.  J.,  and  more  frequently 
in  the  vales  and  on  the  acclivities  among  the  Gneissic  hills  about  White 
Plains,  N.  Y. ;  also  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  New  Jersey. 


YlOl.ACKJE. 


59 


Var.  reniformis,  Willis,  is  quite  distinct  aiul  constant.  Leaves  very  broad, 
cordate,  or  prominently  reniform  ;  frequently  4  to  5  inches  wide,  and  an  inch 
from  base  to  apex;  sometimes  with  a  deep,  broad  sinus  at  the  apex,  seldom 
flowering;  flowers  subterranean,  leaf-stalks  12  to  15  inches  long,  growing  in 
rich,  damp,  shady  places. 

Var.  cordata,  Walt.  Leaves  ]n-ostrate,  round,  cordate,  smooth  or  clothed 
with  soft  hairs,  small.  Dry  hills  and  open  woodlands.  (V.  villosa  and  V.  cor- 
data, Walt,  and  V.  sorosis,  Willd.) 


Viola  sagittata  (Arrow-leaved  Violet). 


9.  V.  palustris,  L.     (Meadow  Violet,  or  Marsh  Violet.)     Leaves  cordate, 

or  kidney-shnpod.  oliscurely  crenate  ;  stipules  broadly  ovate,  and  acuminate. 
Hhizomes  creeping  and  scaly.  Sepals  ovate,  obtuse.  Petals  small,  pale  blue; 
spur  short  and  blunt;  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves.  I'lant  2  to  3  inches 
high.     June. 

Geogra/thr/.  —  Tops  of  White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire,  also  mountains 
of  Colorado  and  Utah;  identical  with  the  Euroj)ean  species. 

10.  V.  pedata,  L.  (Bird-foot  Violet.)  TiCaves  pedate,  smooth,  .5-0-])arted, 
lobes  linear,  lanceolate,  obtuse  or  acute.  1-2-tootlied  or  .'i-lobed  .at  the  apex, 
tapering  downwards,  stipules  Lacerated.  Flowers  large,  ])alc-blue  :  petals 
rounded  at  the  extremities,  l)eardle.'5s  ;  spur  short ;  stigma  large,  oliliquely 
truncate  ;  be.ik  oliscure.  Scapes  2  to  .")  inches  high,  several  from  the  same 
root.     May  to  June, 


60  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANT. 

Var.  bicolor,  Pursh.  Varies  from  the  above  description,  in  having  the  two 
upper  petals  deep  violet,  presenting  a  velvety  appearance ;  the  others  light- 
blue,  with  yellow  at  their  bases,  resembling  the  V.  tricolor,  or  pansy. 

Geography.  —  Canada  to  Florida,  and  west  to  111.  In  southern  exposures 
of  sandy  woodsides. 

11.  V.  primulaefolia,  L.  (Primrose-leaved  Violet.)  Smooth,  varying  from  cor- 
date, broad  ovate,  to  lanceolate,  tapering  into  a  winged  petiole,  slightly  repand 
or  crenate  ;  when  growing  in  dry  places  sparingly  pubescent ;  sepals  lanceolate ; 
stigma  beaked.  Flowers  white,  sometimes  striped  with  purple  streaks,  slightly 
odorous ;  petals  slightly  bearded,  especially  the  lateral  ones.  April  to  July. 
Wet  meadows ;  growing  with  V.  lanceolata  and  V.  blanda,  and  seems  to  be  a 
connecting  link  between  them.  Specimens  sometimes  seem  to  possess  the 
characteristics  of  both.  Dr.  Beck  suggests  that  it  may  be  identical  Avith 
V.  lanceolata,  but  the  author's  observations  do  not  lead  him  to  that  conclusion. 
It  seems  more  like  a  variety  of  V.  blanda ;  its  flowers  are  odorous  like  V. 
blanda,  and  its  foliage  more  nearly  approaches  that  of  V.  blanda  than  of 
V.  lanceolata,  4  to  6  inches  high. 

Geography.  —  Found  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  west  to  Tennessee  ;  in  damp 
grounds. 

12.  V.  pubescens.  Ait.  (Downy  YeUow  Violet.)  Stem  6  to  12  inches  high, 
somewhat  angular,  erect,  softly  pubescent.  Leaves  broadly  heart-shaped, 
dentate,  acuminate ;  stipules  large,  ovate,  sparingly  toothed.  Flowers  middle- 
sized,  yellow,  lateral ;  petals  slightly  bearded,  lower  ones  striped  with  dark 
purple ;  spur  very  short.  Peduncles  shorter  than  the  leaves,  axillary,  solitary, 
furnished  with  2  awl-shaped  bracts.     May. 

Var.  scabriuscula,  Torr.  and  Gray.  Smaller,  less  pubescent,  brighter 
green,  stem  frequently  prostrate,  3  to  9  inches  high,  and  branching  near 
the  root. 

Geography.  —  Canada,  eastern  United  States  to  Georgia,  and  west  to  Mis- 
souri.    Frequent  in  dry,  stony,  open  woods  throughout  these  limits. 

13.  V.  rostrata,  Pursh.  (Long-spurred  Violet.)  Stem  diffuse,  erect,  4  to  8 
inches  high,  smooth.  Leaves  smooth,  thin,  roundish,  heart-shaped  below,  cor- 
date-lanceolate or  sub-triangular  and  acute  above  ;  lower  ones  crenate-toothed, 
upper  ones  sub-serrate.  Stipules  large,  lanceolate,  serrate  ciliate.  Flowers 
large,  pale-blue  ;  petals  obovate,  beardless ;  spur  slender  and  very  long.   June. 

Geography.  —  Eastern  North  America,  Canada  to  Virginia,  and  south  and 
west  in  the  Alleghanies.  Found  sparingly  on  shaded  hillsides  throughout 
these  limits. 

14.  V.  rotundifolia,  Mx.  (Pvound-leaved  Violet.)  Early  leaves  orbicular  or 
kidney-shaped,  later  ones  longer  than  broad,  heart-shaped,  sparingly  toothed, 
slightly  crenate,  1  to  2  inches  wide,  2  to  4  inches  long ;  stalks  pubescent,  about 
as  long  as  the  blade.  Flowers  pale-yellow,  middle-sized;  side  petals  bearded, 
marked  with  dark  lines,  sometimes  notched  at  the  summit.  Stalks  1  to  3 
inches  long,  generally  smooth,  occasionally  pubescent,  sometimes  bracted  in 
the  middle  ;  spur  short. 

Geography.  —  Found  sparingly  in  damp  ground  from  New  England  to 
Tennessee. 

15.  V.  sagittata,  Ait.  (Arrow-leaved  Violet.)  Leaf  entirely  smooth,  when 
growing  in  damp  soil ;  slightly  pubescent  when  growing  in  dry  soil.     Sub- 


VIOLACE^. 


61 


linear  lanceolate ;  sometimes  trianp;ular.  oblong  lieart-sliaped,  arrow-shaped, 
or  hal'herd-sliaped  ;  sparinglv  toothed  or  cut-toothe.i  at  the  l.ase  ;  4  to  10 inches 
high.  Flower  deep  blue  ;  petals  obovate,  bearded,  and  emarginate  ;  spur  short 
and  thick  ;  sepals  lanceolate,  acute.     April  to  July. 

Var.  ovata.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  crenate,  frequently  repand  toothed  near 
the  base;  pubescent;  stipules  ciliate  ;  flowers  large  and  dark.  (Irowing  in  dry, 
open  woods ;  sandy  soil.     2  to  4  inches  high.     April,  May.    ( V.  ovata,  Nutt.) 

Geogmphij.  —  Yownd  throughout  eastern  North  America  from  Canada  to 
Florida,  and  west  to  the  Mississipi)i  valley.     Dry  or  moist  open  grounds. 

IG  V.  Selkirkii,  Fursh,  fioldie.  {Great-spurred  Violet.)  Leaves  numerous, 
orbicular,  lieart-sl'iai)ed,  slightlv  liairy  on  the  upper  side,  crenately  toothed  ; 
sinus  deep,  sometimes  broad,  at  other  times  nearly  closed.  Fvoot-stock  fibrous 
rooted.  Flowers  small,  pale  blue ;  spur  very  large ;  petals  beardless,  upper 
oue  marked  with  blue  lines.     Plant  about  2  inches  high.     May. 

Geography.  — Yomid  in  Canada,  Mass.,  and  N.  Y.  Chautauqua  Co.  (Judge 
Clinton),  Lake  Superior  (Robbins),  rare. 


Viola  tricolor  (Pansy). 


17.  V.  Striata,  Ait.  (Pale  Violet.  Striped  Violet.)  Stem  a.«<surgcnt,  angular, 
or  half-round,  smooth,  6  to  12  inches  high.  Leaves  alternate,  heart-shaped, 
frequently  acuminate,  crenate,  serrate ;  petioles  I  to  2  inches  long  ;  stipules 
large,  oblong-lanceolate,  strongly  fringe-toothed.  Flowers  large,  yellowish- 
white ;  side  petals  densely  bearded;  lower  one  striped  with  dark  purple;  spur 
thickish,  shorter  than  the  petals  ;  stigma  recurved.     May. 

Geography. —  Eastern  North  America,  from  Canada,  soutli  and  west.  Low 
grounds.     Found  sparingly  throughout  these  linuts. 

18.  V.  tricolor,  L.  (Pansy.  Heartsease.)  Stem  angular,  uuich  branched,  G 
to  20  inches  higli,  leafy  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  lower  leaves  cordate,  remotely 
toothed,  or  sub-crenate ;  stipules  ])innatifid  or  lyrate,  end  lobes  as  long  as  the 
leaves.  Flowers  variable  in  size;  two  upper  petals  purple;  side  ones  white; 
the  lower  one  striate  at  base  ;  all  yellow  at  base.  Spur  short  and  thick.  April 
to  September. 

Escaped  from  gardens,  sparingly  naturalized  in  fields  near  old  dwellings. 

Var.  arvensis,  DC.  (V.  tenella,  Muhl.).  (V.  tricolor,  L.).  Flowers  a  little 
smaller,  petals  only  as  long  aa  sepals.     The  whole  plant  usually  smaller. 


62  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  Sparingly  naturalized  in  New  York,  and  south  to  Georgia. 
Around  dweiliiigs,  in  dry,  sandy  soil.  Brought  to  North  America  by  English 
colonists. 

Note.  —  This  violet  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  florists  in  England  about 
90  years  ago,  by  Mary  Benuet,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Tankerville,  who, 
aided  by  her  father's  gardener,  produced  several  seedling  varieties,  the  flowers 
of  which  were  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified.  From  this  beginning  the 
plant  has  been  changed  into  the  pansy  of  the  present  day. 

FAijmologj. —  Viola  is  from  the  Greek "loi/,  from  the  following  myth;  Jupi- 
ter loved  "loj,  the  daughter  of  luachus,  first  king  of  Argos,  and  on  account  of 
the  jealousy  of  Juno  he  transformed  "loo  into  a  beautiful  white  heifer,  and  im 
mediately  the  earth  brought  forth  the  violet  for  her  food ;  hence  its  name, 
the  cow  plant.  It  is  also  derived,  by  some,  from  the  Latin  vitula,  a  heifer, 
by  eliding  the  t  and  changing  the  u  into  o,  making  viola,  the  cow  plant,  or 
heifer  plant. 

Histori/.  —  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  this  beautiful  little  flower  should 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  the  ancients.  The  early  writers  on  plants 
mention  the  violet  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  delicacy,  and  it  has  been  lauded 
by  both  poets  and  painters.  In  the  language  of  floAvers,  the  violet  represents 
faithfulness. 

It  was  the  favorite  flower  of  the  Empress  Josephine.  On  the  day  before 
their  marriage  Napoleon  Bonaparte  sent  her  a  bouquet  of  violets,  after  which 
it  became  the  court  flower. 

It  was  the  rallying  sign  of  the  Emperor's  partisans,  on  his  return  from  Elba. 
It  is  related  that  two  days  before  he  set  out  on  his  exile  journey,  he,  while 
walking  alone  in  the  garden  of  Fontainebleau,  asked  a  little  child  to  give  him 
a  bunch  of  violets  he  had  gathered.  These  he  shoAved  to  some  of  his  officers, 
remarking  that  he  considered  the  floAver  an  emblem  of  modesty  Avhich  he  pro- 
posed to  imitate.  The  next  morning,  a  priA^ate  of  his  old  guard  saAv  him  col- 
lecting violets,  and  said  to  him,  "  Sire,  they  will  be  more  plentiful  here  next 
year."  To  Avhich  Napoleon  replied,  "  Do  you  think  I  shall  be  here  next  year  1  " 
The  soldier  said,  "Your  Majesty  Avill  permit  the  storm  to  pass."  Napoleon 
asked,  "  Do  your  comrades  think  so  ?  "  "  Nearly  aU,  Sire,"  was  the  answer. 
Napoleon  said,  "  Let  them  think,  but  not  say  so."  The  soldier  repeated  the 
conversation  to  his  felloAvs,  and  it  Avas  then  agreed  to  speak  of  him  ahvays  as 
Father  Violet.  After  this,  men  throughout  France  began  to  talk  of  the  violets 
of  the  coming  spring,  and  of  a  certain  Corporal  Violet,  who  would  perhaps  come 
in  the  spring.  Ladies  Avho  longed  for  his  coming  Avore  violets  in  their  bonnets. 
In  fact,  treason  lurked  everyAvhere  beneath  a  bunch  of  violets,  and  tiny  pictures 
of  the  Emperor  Avere  concealed  among  the  leaves  and  flowers  in  every  button- 
hole bouquet,  and  bunches  of  tlie  flower  Avere  painted  so  as  to  reveal  his 
profile. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  qualities  of  this  plant  are  said  to  be  curatiA-e  in  lung 
complaints,  rheumatism,  and  catarrh.  Most  of  the  violets  contain  an  emetic 
principle,  called  violine,  especially  in  their  roots.  The  flowers  are  laxative 
and  the  sirup  of  violets  is  used  as  a  laxative  for  infants.  The  sirup  is  also 
used  occasionally  as  a  test  for  acids  and  alkalies.  The  roots  of  some  species 
produce  false  ipecacuanha.  The  floAver  is  used  by  dyers  to  produce  the  color 
knoAvn  as  the  Azure  of  Athens,  and  the  delicate  odor  of  the  SAA-eet  violet  is  a 
most  popular  perfume.  The  florist  finds  it  among  the  floAvers  that  are  largely- 
sought  after  for  ornamental  purposes. 


BIXINE^. 


68 


Okdek  VII.    BIXINE^. 

Sepals  distinct,  or  united  ;it  base,  imbricate  in  the  l)ud,  2-G  in  num- 
ber. Corolla  polype talous  or  absent ;  petals  as  many  as  the  sepals. 
Stamens  hypogynous.  Flowers  usually  perfect,  regular,  axillary  or 
terminal,  either  solitar}'  or  fascicled,  sometimes  racemose  or  j)anicled. 
Leaves  alternate,  simple  toothed,  occasionally  palmately  lobed.  Trees 
and  shi'ubs. 

Genera,  29. 


BlXA    ORELLANA    (Allliatto). 


BIXA,  L.  (Annatto. )  Calyx  fleshy.  Sepals  5,  spatulate,  eared 
near  the  base.  Stamens  numerous,  some  nmltiple  of  5.  Style  fili- 
form.    Fruit  1 -celled,  in   an  oblong,  bristled  pod,  somewhat  like  a 

chestnut,  but  longer. 

1.  B.  orellana,  L.  (Auuatto.)  StemS  to  12  feet  high,  brauehing.  Leaves 
deep-green  abuve,  pale  l)eiieath,  4  inches  long,  l»road  cordate  at  the  base,  and 
tapering  and  pointed  at  the  apex.  Inflorescence  a  loose  panicle.  Flowers 
piuk. 


64  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  The  Bixa  grows  in  tropical  America,  and  has  been  introduced 
by  Europeans  into  southern  Europe,  Burmah,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
Hindustan.     It  grows  freely  in  all  regions  of  no  frost. 

Etymology. —  Bixa  is  the  South  American  name  for  this  tree,  and  the  com- 
mon name  Annatto  is  quite  as  obscure  as  to  its  signification. 

History.  —  It  was  noticed  that  the  natives  of  tropical  America  painted  or 
stained  their  skin  with  a  bright  yellow  dye.  On  inquiry  it  was  learned  that 
the  material  was  obtained  from  the  pulp  in  which  the  seeds  of  the  Bixa  were 
imbedded. 

The  pulp  is  washed  or  soaked  off  the  seeds,  the  water  is  then  removed  by 
evaporation,  and  the  residuum  is  made  into  cakes,  in  which  form  it  is  intro- 
duced into  the  market  Avrapped  in  leaves.  The  soft  wood  is  used  by  the  natives 
of  tropical  America  to  obtain  fire  by  friction. 

Use.  —  The  fiber  of  the  stem  furnishes  excellent  material  for  cordage. 

The  coloring  matter  is  said  to  be  of  a  fire  color,  and  when  mixed  with  cheese 
or  butter  it  imparts  a  rich,  creamy  yellow ;  it  is  largely  used  in  Holland  and 
England  as  well  as  in  America  for  that  purpose.  It  is  also  used  to  color  var- 
nish, and  it  is  mixed  with  chocolate  to  enliven  the  color  and  to  improve  the 
flavor.  The  roots  are  used  in  soups.  The  seeds  are  cordial,  and  a  drink 
made  from  them  is  said  to  be  remedial  in  allaying  fevers. 

Marts.  —  Tlie  annual  import  of  annatto  into  England  is  about  300,000 
pounds,  valued  at  about  $65,000. 


Order  VIII.    TERNSTRCEMIACE^. 

Sepals  5,  occasionally  4:-6  or  7,  free  or  slightly  connate  at  the  base, 
imbricated  in  the  bud.  Petals  5,  free,  hj^^ogynous,  imbricated  or 
twisted.  Stamens  sometimes  equal  in  number  to  the  petals,  but 
usually  indefinite.  Flowers  perfect,  regular,  axillary,  solitary,  or 
fascicled,  sometimes  in  terminal  racemes  or  panicles.  Ovary  3-5- 
celled.  Ovules  pendulous  or  ascending.  Fruit  indehiscent  or  cap- 
sular. Leaves  alternate,  occasionally  opposite,  frequently  fascicled, 
at  summit  of  the  branchlets.     Trees  or  shrubs. 

Number  of  genera,  32. 

THEA,  L.  (Tea.)  Calyx  5-parted,  sepals  short  and  scale-like. 
Corolla  much  longer  than  the  calyx,  white.  Stamens  many.  Style 
3-parted.  Several  flowers  appear  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Capsule 
3-celled.     Shrubs. 

1.  T.  viridis,  L.  Stem  in  a  natural  state  grows  to  the  height  of  15  to  20  feet, 
but  is  dwarfed  under  cultivation,  by  stripping  the  leaves,  and  seldom  reaches  a 
height  above  5  feet,  diffusely  branched.  Leaves  lanceolate,  entire  at  the  base, 
serrate,  with  blunt  teeth  towards  the  apex,  alternate.  Flowers  white.  When 
grown  in  the  Middle  States,  it  flowers  in  winter  under  glass. 

2.  T,  Bohea,  L.  corresponds  with  T.  viridis  except  that  the  flower  has  many 
petals,  and  is  most  likely  a  variety  of  it,  as  the  only  striking  difference  is  in 
the  numerous  petals. 

Varieties.  —  The  tea  plant  is  grown  from  seed,  and  sports  freely ;  hence  there 
are  many  varieties,  differing  from  each  other  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the  leaf. 


TEKNSTKCEMIACE^. 


65 


DUutry  ul  the  tea  plant  is  generally  supposed  to 

in  a  helt   iiitluded  lietween  the  parallels  of  25° 

lorf  pndiHi-  on  hillsides  than  in  the  bottom 

bv  tlie  ('hiuese,  but  its  quality  aud  pro- 


Assam,  C'achar,  Sylhet,  Chit- 


Geui/raphy.  —  The  native 
be  Chiua,  but  it  grows  well 
aud  35°  throughout  Asia,  and  i 
lauds.     It  is  cultivated  further  norti 
duetiveness  are  best  in  the  al)ove-nanied  belt. 

Tea  is  cultivated   in  Kaugra,  tiurhwal,  and  in 
tagoug,  Darjeeliug,  aud  ('lu>ta-Nag|)ore. 

lu  Hiudustau  the  cultivation  has  greatly  increased,  and  is  still  iucreasiug, 
The  yield  per  acre  ranges  from  100  to  200  j)ouuds.  The  couditious  of  sue 
cessful  tea  culture  are,  tirst,  a 
low,  undulating,  hilly  country, 
where  the  valleys  have  good 
drainage  ;  second,  a  climate 
warm,  moist,  and  of  uniform 
temperature.  Assam  presents 
a  most  favorable  region,  the 
temperature  seldom  rising 
above  95"  in  the  daytime  nor 
falling  below  60°  at  night, 
while  the  rainfall  is  remarkably 
uuiform  throughout  the  year, 
being  about  12  inches  monthly. 
Wherever  these  conditions  are 
approached,  tea  may  be  success- 
fully cultivated.  Japan,  Aus- 
tralia, Jamaica,  Brazil,  and 
parts  of  North  America  all 
possess  localities  favorable  to 
tea  culture,  and  if  labor  suffi- 
ciently skilled  and  cheap  were 
obtainable,  these  countries 
would  be  independent  of  tea 
importations.  In  1836  the  at- 
tention of  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment was  called  to  Assam  by 
Dr.  Royle,  the  botanist,  as  a 
suitable  locality  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  jilant,  which  had 
been  found  there  in  a  wild  state. 

Efijmolo;/ 1/.  — The  name  T/iea  is  derived  from  the  Chiue.se 
l)rouounced  Te/ia,  the  meaning  of  which  is  obscure. 

/lintor//.  —  It  is  not  known  when  this  plant  was  first  used  to  furnish  a  bev- 
erage, but  it  is  well  established  that  it  has  been  an  article  of  traffic  for  more 
than  fifteen  hundred  years.  It  was  cultivated  aud  used  in  the  Chinese  Empire 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  in  Japan  in  the  ninth  century.  Early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  dried  green-tea  leaves  were  presented  to  a  Russian  embassy  in 
("hiua,  and  forced  on  them  against  their  protestations.  When  brought  to 
Moscow  tlie  tea  met  with  very  great  favor.  It  did  not  make  its  ajipearance 
in  Euroi)e  until  about  the  middle  of  the  .seventeenth  century. 

It  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Dutch   East   India  Company,  and   intro- 
duced into  England  from  Holland  by  Lord  Arlington.     In  1664  the  East  India 
Company  picseuted  tlie  Queen  of  England  with  two  pounds  of  tea.     It  cost  at 
Pk.  Fl.  —  (j 


l'HK\  viRiDis  (Tea) 

word,  which  ia 


66  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

first  about  $25  per  pound.  For  a  long  time,  because  of  its  great  price,  its  use 
was  confiued  to  the  wealthy,  and  even  in  the  early  part  of  the  preseut  century 
it  was  sold  in  France  only  by  druggists. 

Chemistry.  —  The  characteristic  substance  found  in  tea  is  thelne,  whose 
formula  is  C8H10N4O2. 

Preparation. — The  varieties  of  tea  are  due  to  different  methods  of  prepara- 
ation.  The  first  gathering  of  the  season  is  the  best,  and  the  last,  which  consists 
of  large  leaves,  of  an  inferior  flavor,  is  the  worst.  Black  tea  is  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere  for  a  considerable  time ;  in  this  exposure  an  uxidation  takes 
place,  which  produces  chemical  changes  greatly  modifying  the  tannin,  theine, 
volatile  oil,  etc.,  but  the  green  teas  are  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  in 
the  same  way,  and  the  same  chemical  changes  do  not  occur.  They  are  roasted 
without  fermeuting,  and  are  afterwards  rolled  and  dried.  Hence  the  different 
effect  of  tlie  green  teas  upon  the  nervous  system.  Pekoe  is  green  tea  scented 
by  flowers  of  the  fragrant  olive  and  other  plants. 

Use.  —  The  leaves  are  steeped  in  boiling  water,  and  the  decoction  is  used  as 
a  beverage.  This  beverage  has  an  exhilarating  effect  upon  the  system,  due 
to  a  chemical  substance  found  in  it  known  as  theine  (see  Chemistry),  which  is 
an  alkaloid.  It  also  yields  a  large  percentage  of  tannic  acid,  with  essential 
oil.  When  first  introduced  into  Europe  it  was  looked  upon  with  disfavor  and 
suspicion,  and  the  origin  of  a  number  of  diseases  was  traced  to  its  use ;  but 
it  has  overcome  all  obstacles,  and  is  now  the  daily  beverage  of  more  than 
600,000,000  people,  who  consume  over  2,306,500,000  pounds  annually,  and  this 
quantity  is  constantly  increasing. 

Statistics. — The  quantity  of  tea  used  in  the  world  is  amazingly  large.  In 
Great  Britain  alone  (mostly  in  England)  about  163,000,000  pounds  are  con- 
sumed annually.  In  one  year  52,424,545  pounds  were  brought  into  the  eastern 
ports  of  the  U.  S.,  besides  what  came  from  China  and  Japan  to  California. 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  consumption  among  the  great 
tea-drinking  peoples :  — 

China  consumes 2,000,000,000  pounds. 

Great  Britain       163,000,000 

United  States 52,000,000  " 

Russia 26,000,000  '* 

Holland       10,000,000  " 

Dominion  of  Canada 9,000,000  " 

France 6,500,000  " 

North  Germany 21,000,000  " 

Victoria  and  other  British  Colonies  in  the  Pacific     .  1 1,000,000  " 
From   Japan  more    than  4,000,000   pounds  are   ex- 
ported         4,000,000  ** 

and  far  more  is  consumed  at  home,  but  allowing 

the  same  for  home  consumption  in  Japan    ,     .     .  4,000,000  " 

The  world's  annual  consumption  amounts  to  .     .     .  2,306,500,000  pounds. 

Propagation.  —  The  propagation  is  by  seeds.  The  seeds  must  be  planted 
as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  in  a  moist  soil,  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  three 
inches  high,  they  must  be  pricked  out  as  the  gardener  puts  out  his  cabbage  or 
lettuce ;  when  they  are  six  to  eight  inches  high  they  may  be  reset  in  a  nursery, 
six  to  twelve  inches  apart,  and  kept  free  from  weeds.  After  six  to  ten  months 
in  the  nursery  they  may  be  planted  in  the  orchard  or  plantation. 


MALVACE^.  67 

The  picking  is  done  by  women  and  cliildren,  wlio  twitch  off  the  young 
leaves  and  ternnnal  Inids  with  tlie  thumb  and  finger.  They  are  then  carried 
to  the  house  or  «hed,  wiiere  they  are  spread  out  on  mats,  then  roasted  in  ]>ans, 
rolled  in  the  hands,  and  dried  over  a  charcoal  fire,  when  the}-  are  readv  for 
packing. 

This  is  a  brief  description  of  one  process.  Several  methods  are  in  use  to 
accomplish  tlie  same  end. 

Marts.  —  Canton  is  the  great  tea-exporting  market  for  China.  Most  of 
the  best  teas  taken  into  Russia  are  carried  overland.  Teas  are  also  shipped 
from  other  Cliinese  ports  besides  Canton.  Imports  into  Great  Britain  an;, 
chieriy  landed  at  Liverpool;  into  tiie  U.  S.,  at  New  York,  Bo.ston,  and  .San 
Francisco.  Tiie  marketable  character  of  each  variety  of  tea  depends  upon 
its  purity,  time  of  harvesting,  and  the  perfection  of  preparation  or  curing. 
Wiien  these  three  things  are  perfect,  tea  discharges  a  certain  aroma  anil 
possesses  a  peculiar  taste.  Tlie  taste  and  aroma  are  .so  delicate  that  tea 
merchants  do  not  trust  their  own  judgment,  but  employ  professional  tasters, 
who  command  high  salaries.  These  tasters  suffer  in  health  on  account 
of  breathing  and  absorbing  a  volatile  oil  given  off  by  the  tea  while  in  an 
infused  state. 

Order  IX.    MALVACE^. 

Herbs  or  shrubs.  Flowers  regular;  sepals  5,  united  at  the  base, 
valvate  in  the  bud ;  petals  5,  hypogyuous,  convolute  in  the  bud ; 
stamens  numerous,  monadelphous,  and  hypogynous ;  anthers  kidney- 
shaped,  1-celled ;  pistils  several,  distinct  or  united ;  stigmas  various. 
Leaves  alternate  and  stipulate.  Fruit,  several-celled  capsules,  or  made 
up  of  1-seeded  carpels ;  embryo  of  the  seed  curved. 

GOSSYPIUM,  L.  (Cotton  Plant).  Calyx  cup-like,  5-toothed,  encir- 
cled by  a  ;)-leaved  involucre,  the  cordate  leaflets  united  at  the  base, 
incisely  toothed  ;  petals  5,  large  ;  styles  united ;  stigmas  3-5 ;  capsules 
3-5-celled,  many-seeded;  seeds  brown,  immersed  in  soft,  wool-like, 
white,  fibrous  hairs,  which  is  the  cotton  of  commerce.  Herbs  and 
shrubs. 

L  G.  herbaceum,  L.  (Herb  Cotton.)  Stem  5  feet  high,  clothed  with  stiff 
liairs  above.  Leaves  large,  cordate,  .'3-5-lobed  below,  3-lobed  above,  somewhat 
in  form  of  the  grape  leaf,  with  mucronate  lobes  ;  leaf-stalk  as  long  as  the 
blade.  Flower-stalk  longer  than  the  petioles,  flowers  axillary,  yellow,  with  a 
reddish  center,  showy,  .'i  inches  in  diameter.     Herb. 

2.  G.  Barbadense,  L.  (Sea-Island  Cotton).  Leaf  has  3  glands  on  the  under 
side  of  the  mich'ib.     Seed  black,  cottou  very  white,  fibers  long. 

3.  G.  arboreum,  L.  (Tree  Cotton).  Stem  arborescent,  15  to  20  feet  high, 
branching.  Leaves  5-lobed,  not  so  broad  as  those  of  G.  herbaceum.  General 
shape  lanceolate;  j)etioles  liirsute.     Flowers  red  and  showy. 

The  species  of  Gossy|)ium  are  numerous,  those  described  above,  with  their 
varieties,  are  tiie  most  important  that  are  under  cultivation.  As  the  cotton- 
plant  is  propagated  from  .seed  it  is  liable  to  sport,  and  a  great  number  of 
forms  or  varieties  have  arisen,  differing  from  the  parent  in  strength,  length, 
or  color  of  the  fiber.     The  cotton  fiber  of  commerce  consists  of  the  long  silky 


68  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

hairs  with  which  the  seeds  are  clothed ;  these  hairs  are  tubular,  unjuiuted, 
flattened,  and  slight!}-  twisted.  When  ripe,  the  seed  is  gathered,  and  the  hairs 
and  the  seed  are  separated  by  a  machine  called  a  gin;  the  cotton  is  then 
packed  in  bales  for  the  market. 

Geoqraphij.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  cotton-plant  is  mostly 
confined  to  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  though  it  has  some  varieties 
that  have  gradually  become  acclimated  to  regions  of  light  frost.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  a  broad  belt  all  around  the  globe. 


GossYProivi  ARBOREUM  (Tree  Cotton), 


The  cotton-plant  will  fruit  well  in  the  same  latitude  with  the  sugar-cane. 
The  East  Indies,  China,  the  Asiatic  islands,  Greece,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean,  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  Asia  Minor,  Northern 
and  Western  Africa,  Australia,  and  the  isles  of  the  Pacific,  the  West  Indies, 
Southern  United  States,  Venez.uela,  British  Guiana,  and  Brazil,  are  the  centers 
of  cultivation. 

Eti/molofji/. —  Gossypium  is  from  Goz,  an  Arabian  word,  signifying  silky. 
The  specific  name,  herhaceum,  signifies  herb-like,  and  Barhadense  is  for  Bar- 
badoes.  Arboreum  means  tree-like.  The  word  cotton  is  from  a  Syriac  word 
meaning  fine,  delicate. 

History.  —  It  is  not  known  when  or  where  the  cotton-plant  first  began  to 
minister  to  man's  comfort ;  it  is  a  reasonable  inference  that  it  was  among  the 
^vst,  if  not  the  very  first,  of  the  fibrous  plants  to  attract  attention. 


MALVACE^..  69 

The  fl<nvers  and  the  bursting  pods  are  showy  and  very  beautiful,  and  must 
always  have  heen  objects  oC  admiration.  Cotton  was  unknown  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  as  no  cotton  clothes  or  wrappings  have  Ijeen  found  in  the  mummy 
pits.  The  seeds  of  tree-cotton  were  found  by  Kosellini  in  an  Egyjjtian  tomb. 
Herodotus  speaks  of  a  plant  in  India  which  produced  a  finer  and  better  (puility 
of  wool  than  that  of  sheep,  of  wliich  the  mitives  made  their  clothing.  Five 
centuries  after  Herodotus,  Pliny  describes  the  cotton-plant,  and  states  that  it 
was  under  cultivation  in  Egypt!  and  that  the  Hber  was  used  to  make  the  fabrics 
worn  by  the  priests.  Arabian  travellers  who  visited  China  during  the  ninth 
century  state  that  the  Chinese  did  not  at  that  time  use  cotton  fabrics,  such 
as  were  used  in  Southern  Euroi)e,  Northern  Africa,  and  the  countries  of  the 
Levant,  but  instead  used  silk.  It  is  believed  that  Alexander  the  (ireat,  about 
325  B.C.,  carried  the  cotton-seed  to  the  Levant  from  India,  where  he  found  it 
growing'  in  the  country  between  the  forks  of  the  Indus.  Another  account 
Sives  the  Arabs  credit  for  its  introduction  into  Egypt,  whence  it  spread  into 
Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

The  raw  material  did  not  become  an  article  of  commerce  until  many  years 
after  the  occupation  of  India  by  the  British;  but  manufactured  ctton  g.xnls 
were  imported  into  Great  Britain  as  early  as  1666  from  Bombay  and  other 
ports  of  Hindustan.  The  Dutch,  English,  and  Portuguese  merchants  all  dealt 
largely  in  cotton  fabrics  made  in  Southern  Asia.  The  first  iniportati<.n  of 
raw  cotton  into  England  from  the  East  Indies  occurred  in  1798.  The  profit 
on  cotton  when  it  first  entered  into  commerce  was  five  hundred  i)er  cent. 
Napoleon  I.  during  his  reign  cut  off  all  trade  with  neighboring  nations,  antl 
one  of  the  results  was  an  attempt  to  bring  cotton  under  cultivation  in  Italy, 
Southern  France,  and  the  island  of  Corsica. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  a  cotton-plant  has  l)een  found  in  Mexic(.  entirely 
different  from  the  Asiatic  varieties,  growing  without  cultivation,  and  that  the 
Mexicans  and  the  Peruvians  wore  cotton  clothing  when  compiered  by  the 
Spaniards,  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  new  world.  The  plant  grown  now 
in  America  was  introduced  in  early  colonial  times,  but  did  not  reach  any  com- 
mercial importance  till  the  beginning  of  tiie  i)resent  century,  when  about  two 
tliousand  pounds  were  shii)ped  to  England;  from  that  time  the  tiuantity  rap- 
idly increased  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 

in  the  year  1860,  2,160,000,000  pounds  were  exported.  The  (piality  of  the 
American  production  is  so  far  supericn-  to  all  others  that  it  brings  in  tho^open 
market  a  much  higher  price  than  the  cotton  of  India.  Next  to  the  United 
States,  India  takes  the  greatest  quantity  to  Great  Britain. 

Before  the  power  loom  and  spinners  were  brought  into  use,  China  and  India 
made  the  cotton  fabrics  and  i)rints  of  the  world ;  but  now  England  exchanges 
tlie  woven  fabrics  with  those  countries  for  the  raw  material. 

/"V.  —  The  wool  or  fiber  of  the  cottou-jdant  is  now  wrought  into  every 
sort  of  fabric  that  enters  into  the  clothing  of  civilized  peojdes  of  tropical  and 
subtropical  countries,  and  that  constitutes  the  under  garments  of  people  of 
higlier  latitudes,  and  it  forms  a  large  ])art  of  the  attire  of  females  throughout 
the  civilized  worM.  (iun-cotton,  a  highly  explosive  substance,  is  ]>roduced  by 
soaking  cotton  in  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  Gun-cotton  treated  witli  sulphuric 
ether  gives  collodion. 

Of  the  seeds  an  oil  is  made  which  rivals  the  best  olive  oil  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  seeds,  ground  and  ]>ressed  into  ma.-<ses,  are  sold  under  the  nante 
of  oil-cake,  and  used  to  feed  poultry  and  cattle,  for  which  purpd.^e  they  are 
highly  valued. 


70 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Cotton,  treated  with  antiseptics,  forms  a  very  important  article  of  modern 
surgery.  From  the  roots  a  fluid  extract  is  made,  much  used  in  the  Southern 
United  States  by  irregular  practitioners. 

Statistics.  —  The  amount  of  cotton  consumed  in  the  M'orld  is  not  easily 
ascertained.  There  are  about  3,000,000,000  pounds  exported  annually  from 
Southern  Asia,  and  2,000,000,000  pounds  from  the  United  States,  and  about 
the  same  amount  is  consumed  in  those  countries ;  so  that  an  estimate  of 
12,000,000,000  pounds  for  the  whole  world  would  not  be  too  high.  This  quan- 
tity, at  ten  cents  per  pound,  amounts  to  the  enormous  sum  of  $1,200,000,000 
for  the  value  of  the  raw  material. 

Order  X.    STERCULIACE^. 

Trees  or  shrubs,  agreeing  with  Malvaceae,  except  that  the  anthers 
are  extrorse  and  2-celled ;  petals  sometimes  wanting ;  capsules 
united  into  a  2-5-celled  ovary. 


THEOBROMA,   L.     (Cocoa.)     Calyx  spreading,  sepals  5.     Petals  5. 
cordate  at  the  base,  extending  into  a  strap.     Stamens  united  at  the 

base,  extending  upwards 
into  10  divisions,  each 
alternate  one  terminated 
by  2  anthers  each,  the 
other  divisions  sterile. 
Pistil  filiform,  divided 
into  a  5-parted  stigma. 
Fruit  a  5-angled,  elon- 
gated, warty  capsule,  in 
the  form  of  a  cucumber, 
5-7  inches  long,  and  3 
inches  in  diameter,  con- 
taining from  25-40  seeds. 
Seeds  about  three  eighths 
of  an  inch  long  and  two 
eighths  wide,  imbedded 
in  pulp. 

1.  T.  cocoa,  Wallich. 
Stem  upright,  much- 
liranched  ;  branches  com- 
mence about  4  or  5  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  form 
a  symmetrical  head.  Bark 
light-brown,  smooth  ;  the 
whole  from  10  to  15  feet  in 
height,  presenting  a  beauti- 
ful appearance.  Leaves  oblong,  lanceolate,  4  inches  in  length  and  2  in  width, 
entire,  dark-green,  and  evergreen.  Flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit  after  the  third 
year  of  the  plant's  life  are  always  present.  Fruit  harvested  twice  a  year, 
June  and  December. 


Theobroma  roroA  (Cocoa). 


STKRm.TACK^..  71 

Besides  the  abovo-descrihed  species,  thore  are  some  10  others,  all  of  which 
»,^r  the  same  description,  with  the  exception  of  some  slight  variation  in  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  fruit  or  leaf,  the  most  important  of  which  are :  — 

•>.   T.  angastifolia,  DC.     Narrow-leaved. 

3.  T.  ovatifolia,  DC.  A  Mexican  species  called  Soconosco,  with  ovate 
leaves. 

4.  T.  bicolor,  Humboldt.  A  species  found  in  Colombia.  S.  A.,  with  varie- 
gated leaves. 

5.  T.  Guianensis,  Aublet.     A  species  indigenous  to  Guiana.  S.  A. 

6.  T.  microcarpa,  Mart.     A  West  India  species,  with  small  seeds. 

7.  T.  sylvestris,  Martius.     A  species  found  in  the  selvas  of  Brazil. 
As  the  plant  is  produced  from  seed,  varieties  are  constantly  occurring. 

Geography.  — The  Theobroma  is  a  native  of  America,  and  is  indigenous  to 
tropical  and  subtropical  regions,  or  at  least  to  regions  of  no  frost.  It  i.s 
found  in  Brazil  and  all  parts  of  South  America  north  of  Brazil,  the  ^^  est 
India  islands,  and  Mexico.  It  has  been  introduced  into  the  Philippine  islands 
and  other  parts  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  but  the  great  supply  is  produced 
in  the  new  world. 

The  Spaniards  introduced  its  culture  into  southern  Europe  about  the  year 
1.560.  Some  years  ago  the  British  introduced  the  cultivation  of  the  cocoa 
into  India  with  success. 

Etymologii.  —  Theobroma  \9,  derived  from  the  Greek  Q^6s;  God,  and  $pii)^la, 
food,  hence  food  of  the  gods.  Cocoa  is  supposed  to  be  a  contraction  of  the 
Portuguese  word  macoco,  monkey,  applied  to  the  tree  on  account  of  the  resem- 
blance of  the  end  of  the  fruit  to  the  face  of  a  monkey. 

History.  —  Cocoa  was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  Europeans  at  the  time  of 
the  invasion  and  conquest  of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards  in  1520-  The  Mexicans 
prepare  it  with  spices,  as  chocolate  is  now  prepared.  That  prepared  for  the 
emperor  was  flavored  with  vanilla.  When  Cortes,  the  conqueror  of  ^fexico. 
sent  the  valuable  products  of  the  New  World  to  Charles  V.,  cocoa  was  .^ent  a.s 
one  of  the  choicest.  The  Spaniards  took  it  to  Europe  and  introduced  it  into 
commerce.  The  medical  men  found  that  it  possessed  curative  properties,  and 
a  monograph  was  written  by  Hoffman  in  which  he  entitled  it  Potus  Chocolait. 
He  states  that  Cardinal  Richelieu  was  cured  of  a  general  wasting  of  the  body 
bv  its  use. 

Though  used  in  Spain  and  Portugal  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  was 
not  known  in  England  until  more  than  a  hundred  years  afterwards.  Tho 
earliest  mention  of'its  use  was  in  a  periodical  known  as  Needliam'sMercurius 
Politicus,  16.59.  The  mode  of  jjreparing  it  was  introduced  into  England  by 
Dr.  Sloane. 

A.  De  Candolle  states  that,  when  th(>  Spaniards  explored  and  conquered 
Mexico,  the  fruit  of  the  Theobroma  was  so  liighly  jirized  that  the  seeds  were 
used  for  money.  In  1674  the  Spaniards  carried  tlie  plant  to  the  Philippine 
Islands,  where  its  cultivation  became  wonderfully  successful. 

C/ifm/.sf ?•//.  — Various  results  have  been  obtained  by  chemis^ts  in  the  analysis 
of  the  bean  of  the  Theobroma.  arising  no  doul)t  from  different  conditions  or 
varieties  of  the  bean.     In  one  thousand  part.**  it  yields  — 


72 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Fat  (Cocoa-Butter) 
Albuminoids  .  . 
Starch  or  Sugar  . 
Mineral  substances 
Theobromine    .     . 


510 

210 

220 

40 

20 

1000 


Formula  of  Theobromine. — 
C7,  Hg,  N4,  0-2.  This  is  the  sub- 
stance that  affects  the  nervous 
system  somewhat  as  theine  and 
caffeine  do. 


Comparative  analysis  with  milk  (approximate) :  — 

Milk. 

Fat 35 

Albuminoids  and  Caseine 50 

Starch  or  Sugar 40 

Theobromine 0 

Other  substances 15 

Water 860 

1000 


Cocoa. 

510 

210 

220 

20 

40 

0 

1000 


This  shows  that  the  cocoa  bean  contains  materials  to  sustain  life.  Among  the 
mineral  substances  of  Theobroma  is  Phosphate  of  Lime. 

Use.  —  The  dried  and  split  cotyledons  of  Theobroma  seeds  are  cocoa  nibs, 
and  when  ground  and  made  into  a  paste,  they  form  chocolate.  The  seeds, 
when  roasted  and  ground,  are  cocoa ;  this  when  mixed  with  starch  and  finely 
ground,  is  soluble  cocoa. 

Like  tea  and  coffee,  cocoa  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  arti- 
cles of  domestic  economy,  and  in  the  formation  of  warm  table  beverages 
stands  first  among  the  peoples  of  Southern  Europe.  South  America,  and 
Southern  North  America,  and  forms  an  article  of  consideration  in  commerce 
in  the  marts  of  all  the  civilized  world.  The  natives  of  the  countries  where  it 
grows  break  the  capsule  or  seed-vessel  and  suck  out  the  pulp,  which  has  a 
glutinous,  sweetish  taste.  It  is  also  preserved,  and  vinegar,  spirits,  liquors, 
and  jellies  are  made  of  it ;  but  the  most  important  part  is  the  seeds,  which 
are  roasted,  ground,  and  made  into  a  beverage,  as  coffee  is  prepared,  and  are 
used  in  the  same  way. 

Statistics.  —  The  production  of  cocoa  in  the  New  World  amounts  to  about 
60,000,000  pounds,  worth  $7,000,000.  In  the  absence  of  statistics,  the  quantities 
produced  in  Europe  and  Asia  cannot  be  arrived  at. 

Marts.  —  The  markets  of  South  America  are  La  Guayra,  Puerto  Cabello, 
Maracaibo,  Campano ;  of  North  America,  Vera  Cruz ;  of  the  West  Indies, 
Martinique  and  Guadaloupe. 

Order  XI.    TILIACEJE. 

Calyx  valvate,  and  falling  early  ;  sepals  5 ;  petals  4-5,  or  as  many 
as  sepals,  rarely  gamopetalous,  hypogynous,  twisted,  imbricated,  or 
valvate  in  the  bud.  Stamens  some  multiple  of  the  number  of  the 
petals,  free  or  in  bundles  ;  anthers  2-celled.  Flowers  perfect,  with 
rare  exceptions,  regular,  axillarj%  or  terminal,  solitary,  or  in  few- 
flowered  cymes  or  panicles.  Leaves  alternate,  occasionally  nearly 
opposite,  simple,  entire,  or  palmately  lobed  ;  sometimes  crenulate  or 
dentate,  frequently  coriaceous  ;  veins  prominently  reticulate  beneath : 


TnJACE^E. 


T3 


stipules  '2.     Fruit  2-l(>-ci'lle<l,  varying  froui  1  cell  by  suppression  to  10 
by  false  septa. 
Trees  and  shrubs,  seldom  herbs.     No.  of  genera,  40. 

CORCHORUS,  L.  (Yellow  Jute.)  Calyx  5-parted,  sepals  valvate,  petals 
alternating  with  the  sepals  ;  stamens  two  or  three  times  as  many  as  the 
petals,  nearly  all  fertile,  or  a  few  of  the  interior  ones  without  anthers, 
filaments  free,  anthers  2-valved,  opening  by  longitudinal  slits.  Style 
simple  ;  apex  broadened,  hollow,  truncate,  and  toothed,  or  crenulate. 
Ovary  2-.5-valved,  cells  frequently  incomplete,  the  placenta  fall- 
ing short  of  the  center,  many-ovuled.  Capsule  short,  subglobular, 
or  elongated,  varying  to  ovate-oblong  or  subcylindrical,  velvety,  or 
clothed  with  soft  bristle-like  processes 
or  hairs.  Seeds  numerous.  Leaves  sim- 
ple or  compound,  alternate,  serrate,  stip- 
ulate. Flowers  solitary,  or  in  small 
terminal  and  bracteate  cymes. 

1.  C.  capsularis,  W.  (Jute.)  Stem  5  to 
10  feet  in  height,  branched.  Leaves  alter- 
nate, acuminate,  serrate,  palmately  com- 
pound ;  leaflets  G,  lanceolate,  tapering  to  the 
base.  Flowers  terminal  and  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches,  in  loose  compound  racemes, 
small,  yellowish.  Capsule  globose,  wrinkled, 
.5-celled  seeds,  few  in  a  cell. 

2.  C.  olitorius,  W.  (Jute.)  Stem  .5  to  6 
feet  in  height,  erect.  Leaves  alternate,  ovate, 
acuminate,  serrate,  tlie  lower  teeth  terminat- 
ing in  thread-like  processes.  Flowers  small, 
yellow,  on  a  peduncle ;  sepals  5  ;  petals  5. 
Capsules  subcylindrical,  resembling  the  seed- 
vessel  of  a  cruciferous  ])lant,  10-ribbed,  .5- 
celled,  .5-valved.     Seeds  numerous. 


CoRCHORUS    OLITORIUS    (Jute). 


.3.  C.  siliquosa,  L.,  wliose  fruit  resembles  a  sili(iue,  is  found  in  Florida;  but 
the  first  two  species  described  above  furnish  the  fiber  known  as  jute. 

Geographi/.  —  Soutlicrn  licit  of  the  north  temperate  zone  and  the  tropics. 

There  are  about  forty  species,  all  of  wliicli  are  natives  of  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries, 

Eti/mo/og)/.  —  CnrrlinrHH  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  (ireek  K^pv.  the 
pupil  of  the  eye,  and  Kopiw,  cleanse,  alluding  to  the  purgative  jjroperties  of 
some  of  tlie  species.  (How  it  applies  to  the  eye  is  not  apparent.)  Capsularis 
alludes  to  tlie  jioculiar  form  of  the  seed-vessel  of  this  species,  and  olitorius 
means  a  garden-plant.  Jute  is  from  Sanskrit  (/Jat,  the  Indian  name  for  the 
plant,  the  meaning  of  which  is  obscure. 

Histori/.  —  The  liome  of  the  C.  capsularis  is  Java  and  Ceylon,  and  undoubt- 
edly other  Asiatic  islands.  (\  olitorius  is  a  native  of  western  India,  an(i  has 
spread  by  cultivation  to  Asia  Minor,  Africa,  etc.  It  is  certain  that  the  Greeks 
used  this  ])lant  as  a  pot-herb,  and  by  many  otlier  nations  around  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  this  use  of  it  was  common. 


74  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

Cultivation.  —  A  hot,  moist  climate,  an  abundant  rainfall,  and  a  rich,  alluvial 
soil  appear  to  be  the  conditions  most  favorable  for  the  successful  cultivation 
of  the  jute  plants.  The  land  nuist  be  well  tilled  and  abundantly  manured. 
The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  in  India  extends  from  about  the  middle  of  March 
to  the  end  of  May ;  the  seed  is  soAvn  broadcast  in  the  prepared  ground,  the 
young  plants  are  thinned  out  to  6  inches  apart,  and  the  ground  is  carefully 
weeded.  The  stalks  are  ready  for  cutting  down  between  the  middle  of  August 
and  the  middle  of  October. 

Use.  —  The  fiber  of  the  jute  is  long,  hard,  coarse,  and  glossy,  but  much  infe- 
rior to  hemp  and  flax  in  point  of  strength.  It  is  cultivated  in  Southern  and 
AA^estern  Asia  and  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  and  in  Central  and  North- 
ern Africa.  In  the  Levant  the  C.  olitorius  is  grown  for  a  pot-herb,  and 
eaten  for  a  vegetable  with  meats.  The  fiber  is  obtained  by  steeping  the 
plant  and  rotting  it,  in  the  manner  described  for  preparing  hemp;  the  fiber 
is  hard  and  woody.  AYhen  used  to  manufacture  wearing-apparel,  it  is  worked 
through  a  machine  and  treated  with  fish  oil,  which  in  a  measure  remedies 
the  evil. 

It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  cloth,  gunny  bags,  sails,  and  cordage 
for  vessels.  It  is  employed  in  the  adulteration  of  hemp,  and  of  late  years  has 
been  applied  to  the  adulteration  of  silk. 

The  pulverized  bark  is  an  active  purgative,  and  is  employed  by  the  Hindus 
for  that  purpose.  The  Hindus  also  manufacture  paper  of  jute.  Theatrical 
wigs,  switches,  Avater-falls,  fronts,  backs,  and  bangs  are  also  made  of  the  fiber 
of  this  plant. 

Statistics.  —  Jute  ranks  in  commercial  and  economic  importance,  as  a  tex- 
tile, next  to  flax,  cotton,  and  hemp.  Great  Britain  imports  large  quantities 
annually,  the  greatest  supply,  over  500,000,000  pounds,  coming  from  India. 
Dundee,  in  Scotland,  is  the  center  of  jute  manufacture. 

Order  XII.    LINAGES. 

Calyx  of  5,  rarely  4,  parts,  imbricate  in  the  bud.  Petals  as  numer- 
ous as  parts  of  calyx,  hypogynous,  twisted.  Stamens  equal  in  number 
to  petals,  and  alternate  with  them.  Ovary  5-4  celled  :  cells  2-ovnled  ; 
or  ovary  spuriously  IO-8-celled.  Styles  3-.5,  free.  Flowers  perfect, 
regular,  in  terminal  racemes  or  corymbs.  Fruit  a  globular  capsule. 
Seed  compressed.     Stem  herbaceous,  sub-woody. 

Herbs.     Number  of  genera,  about  14. 

IINTJM,  L.  (Flax.)  Calyx  .5-parted,  persistent.  Petals,  stamens, 
and  styles  in  5's,  alternating  with  each  other.  Seed-vessel  .5-celled, 
each  cell  partly  or  entirely  separated  into  2  cells  by  a  false  parti- 
tion, thus  forming  10  imperfect  cells  ;  true  cells  mostly  2-seeded  ; 
seeds  flattened.  Leaves  sessile,  entire,  simple,  alternate,  occasionally 
opposite,  exstipulate.     Herbs.     Annual. 

I.  L.  usitatissimum,  L.  (Common  flax.)  Stem  about  3  feet  high,  slender, 
tapering,  smooth.  Leaves  alternate,  linear-lanceolate,  acute,  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  long.  Flowers  in  a  corymbose  panicle ;  sepals  ovate,  acute ; 
margins  membranaceous.  Petals  subcrenate,  large,  blue,  with  a  purple  tinge, 
caducous.  Seeds  compressed,  ovate,  smooth,  and  shining,  mucilaginous. 
Annual. 


LINAGES. 


75 


2.  L.  angustifolium,  L.  (Xarrow-loaved  Flax.)  Ilorlt,  hoars  tho  above 
description,  with  narrower  leaves.     Perennial. 

These  two  species  and  their  varieties  furnish  the  Hax  of  commerce. 

.3.  L.  Vir^iniauum,  L.  (Wild  Flax),  is  a  heautiful  plant,  indigenous  to  east- 
ern North  America;  bears  the  above  description  except  that  the  sepals  are 
mucronate  and  the  seed-vessel  depressed.    Hills  and  edges  of  woods.    Common. 

There  are  nearly  a  hundred  species  of  the  Linum,  the  inner  l»arks  of  all  of 
which  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  possess  the  strong,  fibrous  character  of  the 
Jj.  usitatissimum  and  the  L.  angustifolium. 

Geographi/.  —  No  plant  known  to  domestic  economy  has  a  wider  geogra])h- 
ical  range  than  the  flax.     It  is  found  growing  luxuriantly  in  the  subtropical 
bottom  lands  of  Hindustan,  in  southern  Egypt,  and 
throughout  Europe  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  .south- 
ern and  middle  Russia,  and  northeastern  America. 

Etymologij.  —  Linum  is  from  the  Greek  word  Kiuov, 
thread.  The  specific  name  usitaU'ssimum  signifies 
most  used,  or  useful,  and  atifjustifolium  has  reference 
to  the  narrow  leaves  of  this  species.  Virginianuin 
signifies  Virginian  flax,  or  flax  found  in  Virginia,  a 
name  once  applied  to  a  much  larger  extent  of  terri- 
tory than  that  occupied  by  the  present  State.  Flax  is 
the  Anglo-Saxon  name  for  the  plant,  and  signifies  to 
plait,  or  weave,  referring  to  the  use  made  of  the  fibrous 
bark  of  the  plant. 

Historij.  —  The  home  of  the  varieties  of  flax  under 
cultivation  is  believed  to  be  the  countries  of  the  Le- 
vant and  the  Mediterranean.  Flax  was  used  by  the 
people  of  western  Asia  at  a  period  prior  to  the  found- 
ing of  Babylon.  It  was*  well  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  mummies  were  wrapped  in  linen 
cloth,  usually  of  very  fine  texture.  In  the  Swiss  lake- 
dwellings  evidence  is  found  that  the  L.  angustifolium 
had  been  cultivated.  The  stems  of  the  plant  used 
were  cut,  indicating  a  perennial  species.  Similar  di.<5- 
coveries  have  been  made  in  the  peat-liogs  of  Lombardy.  The  species  grown 
in  ancient  Egypt  was  L.  usitatissimum.  Tn  the  Scriptures  fine  linen  is  fre- 
quently mentioned.  In  the  temple  of  Minerva  at  Lindus  there  was  kept  a 
linen  corslet  of  fine  workmanship,  which  had  been  worn  by  Amasis,  an 
Egyptian  king  who  reigned  600  years  before  Christ,  each  thread  of  whicli 
was  composed  of  300  filaments.  The  garment  was  decorated  with  cotton  and 
gold.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  linen  fabrics  wore  in  use  not 
only  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  but  also  in  Europe. 

Pliny,  in  speaking  of  tlie  flax  of  S])ain,  says  that  it  was  sujierior  to  that 
produced  in  other  countries,  showing  thereby  that  it  was  under  cultivation 
throughout  the  south  of  Europe  at  that  time.  It  was  introduced  into  England 
soon  after  the  Norman  rule  began,  Init  never  became  a  ])rofitable  crop  there 

Ciiltivatinn  atid  Prrparatini}.  —  Flax  re(|uiros  a  damp,  moderatelv  fertile 
soil.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  about  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  rolled  or  har- 
rowed ;  and  just  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  it  is  j.ulled.  made  up  into  Imndles.  and 
sunk  under  water,  to  dis.solve  the  gummy  substance  between  the  bark  and  the 
stalk.     After  it  is  removed  from  the  water  it  is  spread  out  to  dry  ;  it  is  then 


LiNTTM     trSITATISSlMrM 

(Common  Flax). 


76  DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 

passed  between  grooved  rollers  to  break  the  woody  parts  of  the  stem,  aud 
beaten  with  a  large,  broadsword-like  wooden  knife  to  separate  the  fiber  from 
the  broken  woody  parts.  The  whole  of  this  preparation  at  the  present  day  is 
better  performed  by  machinery. 

Use.  —  The  use  of  flax  is  well  known.  It  furnishes  material  for  the 
coarse  sails  of  our  shipping,  for  the  cordage  with  which  they  arf  rigged, 
and  for  the  celebrated  Irish  linens,  and  the  delicate  laces  which  adorn  thp 
ladies'  toilet.  The  ancient  Romans  did  not,  as  the  Italians  do  now,  make 
great  use  of  linen  as  wearing-apparel,  but  they  used  it  for  cordage  and  for 
the  sails  of  their  vessels. 

In  early  colonial  times  it  was  raised  in  the  British  colonies  of  North 
America,  and  every  family  prepared,  spun,  and  wove  the  linen  necessary  for 
the  beds,  table,  and  underwear  for  the  family.  A  coarse  fabric  was  made 
called  tow-cloth,  which  was  used  for  pantaloons  and  farmers'  and  teamsters' 
frocks. 

Of  the  seed  is  made  linseed  oil,  used  iu  mixing  paints.  It  rapidly  oxidizes, 
and  causes  a  hard,  glossy  surface.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  printers'  ink  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  oil  cloths.  The  seeds  when  boiled  are  used  for  drinks  for 
throat  and  bronchial  troubles.  A  liniment  made  of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil 
is  applied  to  burns,  Avith  great  success. 

Marts.  —  Flax  for  linen  fabrics  is  produced  more  largely  in  Belgium  tlian  in 
any  other  European  country.  The  finest  flax  in  the  world  is  raised  in  Flan- 
ders, where  the  material  for  the  celebrated  Brussels  lace  is  produced.  The 
flax  used  for  Brussels  lace  is  sold  for  $.500-$900  per  ton,  yielding  a  greater 
return  per  acre  than  tlie  price  of  the  land  upon  which  it  grows  would  amount 
to.  Flax  is  also  the  chief  staple  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  Belfast  being  the 
metropolis  of  the  linen  trade.  The  great  markets  for  linen  fabrics  are  the 
large  towns  of  these  countries. 

Seed  for  linseed  oil  is  furnished  to  the  world  by  Russia,  Holland,  America, 
and  the  East  Indies. 

ERYTHROXYLON.  L.  Sepals  5.  Petals  5,  imbricate,  each  furnished 
with  a  double  or  plaited  scale  on  the  inner  side  of  the  base.  Stamens 
10.  rarely  12.  Leaves  alternate.  Flowers  axillary.  Fruit  drupaceous. 
Shrub. 

E.  coca,  Lam.  (Coca.)  Stem  6  to  8  feet  high,  ramified  into  a  symmetrical 
head.  Leaf  dark-green  above,  paler  beneath;  thin,  entire,  ovate;  tapering 
at  each  end ;  strongly  veined,  two  lateral  lines  extending  from  the  base  to 
the  apex  parallel  with  the  midrib.  Flowers  small,  white,  solitary,  on  short 
pedicels.  Stamens  united  at  the  base.  Ovary  3-celled,  2  cells  empty,  fertile 
cell  1 -seeded. 

Geography.  —  Tropical  and  subtropical.  Found  in  the  northwestern  parts 
of  South  America,  in  Boli^na,  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia ;  also  in  northern 
parts  of  Brazil. 

Eti/molofji/.  —  Eri/throxi/Ion,  the  generic  name,  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
words  ipvOpos,  red,  and  ^v\ov,  wood,  redwood,  due  to  the  color  of  the  wood. 
Coca  is  the  Indian  name.  In  the  northwestern  parts  of  Brazil  it  is  called 
Spadic.     The  signification  of  neither  of  these  names  is  known. 

History  —  The  practice  of  chewing  the  leaves  of  the  coca  existed  in  Peru  at 
the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  How  long  previously  it  had  been  used  we 
have  no  means  of  knowing. 


ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 


77 


Use. — The  dried  leaves  are  phuc.-d  in  the  siile  of  the  nioutli  with  a  litth; 
ashes  or  shiked  lime,  and  chewed  until  exhausted,  the  operatiuu  being  repeated 
several  times  during  the  day.  It  acts  as  au  excitant  tt)  the  salivary  glands. 
Tlie  saliva,  having  extracted  the  properties  of  the  leaves,  is  swallowed,  and 
produces  a  pleasurable  stimulating  effect  upon  the  system,  neutralizing  the 
pangs  of  hunger  and  thirst,  and  wonderfully  increasing  the  power  of  endur- 
ance of  physical  exertion,  enabling  travellers  and  l)urdpn-bearers  to  endure 
wonderful  fatigue. 

It  is  believed  by  some  that  the  chewers  of  coca  are  speedily  injured  in  both 
mind  and  body  by  effects  similar  to  those  produced  by  alcohol  and  opium  habits. 

Dr.  II.  H.  Husby,  who  has  recently  returned  from  a  visit  to  liolivia  and 
other  parts  of  tropical  South  America,  wiiere  he  has  spent  some  time  in  the 
examination  of  the  botanical  characters  and  medicinal  properties  of  the  trees 
and  plants  of  those  regions,  is  eminently  qualified  to  speak  of  their  wonderful 
qualities.  From  his  article  on  the  coca  we  gather  that  the  most  important 
medical  properties  residing  in  the  plant  are  found  in  the  leaf,  and  are  stimu- 
lant, carminative,  anaesthetic,  and  supporting. 

Dr.  Husby  has  had  unu.sual  opportunities  for  watching  and  studying  the 
effects  of  the  u.se  of  the  coca,  and  his  observations  do  not  lead  him  to  the  con- 
clusi<jn  that  the  constant  use  of  the  leaf  by  the  natives  either  impairs  tiieir 
health  or  enfeebles  their  intellect. 


Ordek  XIII     ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 


Calyx  of  4-5  parts,  iinl)ricate  iii  the  bud. 
bricate  or  contorted.  Stamens  double  the 
gynou.s  ;  filaments  with  a  scale  inside. 
Ovary  several-celled.  Flowers  perfect,  reg- 
ular or  irregular,  axillary,  1-2  from  an  axil. 
Leaves  opposite,  pinnate ;  petioles  stipu- 
late, sometimes  with  spines.  Branches  fre- 
quently divaricate  and  jointed.  Fruit  a 
loculicidal  capsule.  Herbs,  shrubs,  and 
trees. 

Number  of  genera,  17. 

GUAIACUM,  L.  (Ligmnn-vit.T).  Calyx 
5-partod.  IV'tals  5,  Stamens  5  or  10. 
Fruit  a  pentagonal  capsule,  with  5  cells  ;  a 
single  seed  in  each  cell.  Tropical  and  sub- 
tropical trees. 

G.  officinale,  L.  (Lignum-vita\  Guaiacuin 
Wood.)  Stem  crooked,  40  feet  high  and  18 
inches  in  diameter,  branching  irregularly.  Bark 
gray,  with  green  spots.  Hoot  very  large,  de- 
scending very  deep  into  the  earth.  Leaves 
compound,  with  .3  pairs  of  ovate,  blunt  leaflets. 
Flowers  axillary  clusters,  blue,  handsome,  like 
low  ;  heart  wood  <;reenish-brown  :   close  trrain.  s 


Petals  liypogynous,  im- 
number  of  petals,  hyi>o- 


GUAIACUM    OFFICINALB 

I.<igiiuui-vitae). 

hepatica.       Sap  wood  yel- 
iiiks  in   water;  a  iruni   n'siii 


78  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

exudes  from  wouuds  in  the  bark,  which  is  the  Gum  Guaiac  of  the  Materia 
Medica.     The  resiu  yields  to  the  chemist  HO,  C12H7O5,  Guaiacic  Acid. 

Geography.  —  This  tree  is  exclusively  American  ;  it  has  a  narrow  geograph- 
ical distribution,  indigenous  in  the  West  India  Islands,  but  thus  far  has  not 
been  found  upon  the  mainland.  Another  species,  (i.  sanctum,  has  been  detected 
in  Florida. 

Etymology.  —  The  name  Guaiacuin  is  from  the  native  name,  Guaiac,  which 
undoubtedly  refers  to  some  property  of  the  plant.  Officinale  signifies,  of  the 
shops,  referring  to  its  sale  and  use.  Liynum-vitie,  the  wood  of  life,  is  named 
from  its  medicinal  properties,  as  it  is  said  to  preserve  life. 

History.  —  The  Guaiac  is  a  resinous  substance  which  flows  from  wounds  in 
the  bark,  and  hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun  heat.  It  is  friable,  and 
of  a  greeuish-red  color.  The  bark  aud.  wood  also  are  charged  with  this  resin, 
and  are  therefore  medicinal.  The  leaves,  fruit,  and  flowers  are  all  purgative. 
As  it  is  an  American  tree  its  use  is  recent,  but  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
America,  in  1508,  it  was  obtained  from  the  natives  of  Haiti  by  Gonsalvo 
Ferrand  and  taken  to  Europe. 

Use.  —  The  wood  is  very  hard,  takes  a  fine  polish,  aud  is  so  heavy  and  close- 
grained  as  to  sink  in  water.  It  is  a  favorite  wood  in  the  hands  of  the  turner ; 
it  is  manufactured  into  rulers,  pulleys,  ships'  blocks,  bearings  in  steam  ma- 
chinery, mortars,  pestles,  bowls,  and  vases. 

The  resin  is  stimulant  aud  very  diffusive  in  the  system,  and  affects  the  skin, 
kidneys,  and  the  intestinal  canal  very  actively.  In  large  doses  it  is  cathartic. 
It  is  administered  in  the  form  of  pills  and  tinctures 


Order  XIV     RUTACE^. 

Flowers  inferior  or  perigynou.s.  Sepals  and  petals  imbricate,  4-5. 
Stamens  double  the  number  of  petals,  or  equal  (in  the  citrus,  numer- 
ous and  indefinite),  inserted  on  the  receptacle  or  a  surrounding  disk. 
Leaves  alternate,  sprinkled  with  pellucid  dots,  containing  a  bitter, 
aromatic  oil.  Fruit  in  the  orange  family  a  berry.  Shrubs  and  small 
trees. 

Genera,  83.     Species,  450. 

CITRUS,  L.  Caljrs  5-sepaled.  Petals  5-10,  white,  fleshy,  fragrant. 
Stamens  numerous  and  some  multiple  of  5.  Filaments  flat  at  the 
base  and  united  in  sets.  Anthers  versatile.  Style  1.  Ovary  many- 
celled,  ripening  into  a  pulpy  berry.     Shrubs  and  small  trees. 

1.  C.  aurantium,  L.  (Sweet  Orange.)  Stem  about  6  to  8  feet  to  the  point 
where  the  head  begins  to  form,  much  branched  ;  branchlets  armed  with  spines, 
forming  a  symmetrical  tree  from  15  to  25  feet  in  height.  Leaves  ovate,  tapering 
to  a  point ;  petiole  winged ;  blade  leathery,  dark-green  above,  lighter  beneath, 
evergreen,  articulated  to  the  petiole.  Flower  white,  with  a  very  delicate,  fra- 
grant odor.  Fruit  a  berry,  globular,  or  flattened  at  the  poles,  bright  yellow,  two 
to  four  inches  in  diameter,  composed  of  a  juicy,  edible  pulp,  divided  into  10-13 
cells,  each  cell  with  1-3  seeds,  the  whole  inclosed  in  a  bright  golden,  tough  rind. 
In  a  state  of  cultivation  the  spines  on  the  bi'anchlets  are  usually  wanting. 


RUT ACE  ^. 


79 


Var.  sanguinea.  (l^lood  Orange.)  This  form  has  heconie  constant,  and 
differs  from  the  typical  plant  in  the  color  of  the  pulp  in  the  fruit,  which  varies 
from  a  liglit  blooil-red  to  a  deep  dark-red,  tin-  branches  being  usually,  but  uot 
always,  without  spiues.  The  author  has  consulted  intelligent  fruit-growers 
aud  dealers,  who  all  say  that  the  characteristics  are  perpetuated  by  buddiug, 
and  that  as  the  trees  grow  older  the  fruit  shows  a  tendency  to  return  to  the 
normal  type. 

Botanists  and  naturalists  have  thus  far  treated  it  as  an  accident,  unexplaiu- 
able,  or  Silusus  natune,  thus  leaving  the  nurseryman  and  fruit-grower  to  solve 
the  mystery  by  experiment  and  observation. 

This  form  is  more  frequently  taken  on  when  the  pomegranate  stock  is  used, 
but  occurs  occasionally  with  regular  stocks,  aud  does  uot  always  appear  when 
the  pomegranate  stock  is  used. 

Varieties.  —  As  the  orange  is  propagated  from  seed,  it  departs  in  form 
from  the  parent,  and  forms  varieties.  lu  a  very  complete  natural  history 
of  the  orange  family,  pub- 
lished by  Kisso,  an  eminent 
scholar  of  Nice,  one  huu- 
dred  and  sixty-nine  sorts 
are  described,  with  charac- 
ters sufficiently  distinct  to 
make  varieties ;  these  are 
grouped  under  eight  spe- 
cies. Under  the  first,  C. 
aurantium,  the  author  ar- 
ranges forty-three  varieties, 
differing  as  to  qualities, 
form,  or  size  of  the  fruit. 

An  orange-tree  in  full 
bearing  presents  au  object 
of  surpassing  beauty  to  the 
landscape.  Conceive  a  tree 
with  a  well-formed,  sym- 
metrical head,  the  branches 
clothed  with  a  dark-green 
foliage,  besprinkled  with 
delicate  white  flowers,  and 
dotted  all  over  with  bright 
golden-colored  fruit,  and 
you  have  an  object  whose 
beauty  is  simply  enchant- 
ing. 

Geograplii/.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  orange  is  very  'wide. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  all  the  regions  of  no  frost,  where  agriculture  and  horticul- 
ture are  practiced.  The  Arabs  carried  it  from  India  into  western  Asia,  northern 
Africa,  and  southern  Europe.  The  China  orange  was  carried  through  Persia, 
Syria,  and  along  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  to  southern  Europe 
The  bitter,  or  Seville  orange,  went  by  way  of  Arabia,  along  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  to  northern  Africa  and  over  into  Spain.  Though  the 
orange-tree  has  a  very  l)roail  geographical  range,  it  is  a  tropical  and  subtropi- 
cal plant.  It  does  not  rijien  its  fruit  well  exce])t  where  the  temperature  liat 
a  mean  above  CO"  Farenheit.     China,  southern  Japan,  India,   western  Asia, 


Citrus  aurantium  (Sweet  Orange). 


80  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

southern  Spaiu,  Sicily,  northern  Africa,  Australia,  Brazil,  West  India  Islands, 
Florida  and  southern  California,  and  the  Azores  Islands  are  the  chief  grow- 
ing regions. 

Etymology.— The  generic  name.  Citrus,  is  derived  by  some  from  Kirpiov, 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Kihpos,  a  cedar-tree,  because  the  orange,  like 
the  cedar,  is  evergreen.     This  is  a  very  improbable  etymology. 

It  is  held  by  others  that  the  name  is  due  to  the  city  of  Citron  in  Judea. 
The  specific  name,  aurantium,  arises  naturally  from  its  golden  color,  the 
Golden  Citrus.  The  common  name,  orange,  is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin 
word  aureum,  golden.  The  ancient  Romans  were  not  acquainted  with  the 
orange. 

History.  —  The  date  of  its  introduction  into  Europe  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty, but  it  is  believed  that  it  came  to  Spain  with  the  Moors.  It  was  taken 
into  Portugal  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  same  century,  has  the  credit  of  introducing  the  orange 
into  England,  in  the  southern  part  of  which,  with  careful  protection,  it  flowers, 
but  does  not  mature  fruit.  One  account  of  the  introduction  of  the  orange 
into  Europe  makes  it  due  to  the  Crusades,  which  occurred  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries. 

The  home  of  the  orange  has  been  a  subject  of  considerable  research. 
One  account  makes*  it  a  native  of  India,  and  states  that  it  was  carried  from 
southern  India  to  Syria  and  the  countries  of  the  Levant  by  Alexander  the 
Great  on  his  return  from  the  invasion  of  that  country,  and  that  it  was  thence 
taken  into  Europe  during  the  period  of  the  Crusades. 

It  requires  no  great  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  picture  the  foot-sore,  fam- 
ished pilgrim  reposing  in  the  shade  of  the  orange-tree,  while  he  cools  liis 
parched  tongue  with  its  golden  fruit,  whose  enchanting  beauty  is  as  startling 
to  his  astonished  vision  as  the  fragrant  fluids  of  its  juicy  pulp  are  delightful 
to  his  palate. 

Gallesio  maintains  that  the  orange  was  not  among  the  fruits  mentioned  by 
Nearchus  as  seen  by  Alexander  in  his  invasion  of  India,  and  hence  infers  that 
it  could  not  at  that  time  have  been  known  in  the  countries  through  which  he 
passed.  It  has  been  stated  as  probable  that  the  Arabs  carried  it  from  India 
(where  they  found  it  east  of  the  Ganges)  to  southwestern  Asia  and  north- 
eastern Africa,  whence  it  has  emigrated  with  civilized  man  into  all  countries 
where  the  climate  favors  its  growth. 

A.  De  Candolle  believes  its  origin  to  have  been  in  China,  and  thinks  the 
bitter  orange  of  central  Asia  may  be  the  ancestral  stock,  and  the  sweet  orange 
the  offspring,  having  been  obtained  from  seed  in  China  and  Cochin-China. 

The  orange-tree  attains  a  great  age.  It  has  been  known  to  reach  the  age  of 
600  to  700  years.  In  Cordova,  the  ancient  Moorish  capital,  the  broad  avenues 
are  skirted  by  old  orange  trees  30  feet  high,  whose  heads  are  frequently  30 
to  40  feet  in  diameter.  The  larger  trees  bear  fi-om  12,000  to  16,000  oranges 
in  a  single  crop,  and  the  fruit  of  the  current  year  is  frequently  mingled  with 
the  flowers  for  the  following  crop. 

Use  and  Products.  — The  orange  is  a  favorite  dessert,  but  is  not  preserved 
to  any  great  extent.  It  is  recommended  by  medical  men  as  a  stomachic, 
taken  before  breakfast.  The  bitter  orange  is  very  largely  used  for  marmalade 
(from  its  rind),  to  flavor  sauces  for  puddings,  etc. 

The  wood  of  the  orange-tree  is  close-grained  and  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is 
used  by  turners  and  wood  engravers.  The  stems  of  young  trees  when  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  are  highly  prized  for  walking-sticks. 


RUTACE^.  81 

The  peel  of  the  sweet  orange  yields  by  jji-ossure  au  essential  oil  of  great 
value  for  perfumers'  use  anil  for  flavoring  confectionery.  It  is  known  in 
Europe  as  Essence  de  Portugal,  and  iu  the  United  States  as  Oil  of  Sweet 
Orange.  All  that  reaches  this  country  is  tlie  product  of  the  island  of  Sicily.  It 
is  shipped  from  Messina  in  coj)per  canisters  of  twenty  and  forty  pounds  each. 

Essential  oils,  etc.,  from  C.  vulgaris,  Kiss.  (Bitter  Orange).  The  fruit  of 
this  tree  is  the  bitter,  or  Seville  orange.  From  the  peel  is  extracted  the 
Essence  of  Bigaradia,  called,  in  America,  ( )il  of  Bitter  Orange.  It  is  used  for 
flavoring  li(|ueurs  and  bitters.  From  the  flowers,  the  Oil  of  Neroli  Bigaradia 
is  obtained.  The  best  is  made  at  Grasse,  in  the  southeast  corner  of  France. 
It  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  Eau  de  Cologne.  This  distilled  Oil  of  Orange- 
flowers  was  known  to  Porta  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  obtained  its  present 
name  from  the  Princess  of  Neroli,  who  used  it  for  perfuming  gloves  towards 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Orange-flower  Water  is  consumed  very  largely  in  Europe  in  cookery,  and 
sugar  saturated  with  it  is  eaten  by  the  French  and  Italians.  It  is  obtained  by 
distilling  the  flowers  with  water. 

Oil  of  Petit-Grain,  as  its  name  signifies,  was  originally  made  by  distilling 
the  immature  oranges  when  about  the  size  of  large  peas,  but  the  oil  now 
known  by  that  name  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  by  distillation.  It  is  used  as 
a  cheap  substitute  for  Neroli. 

The  sweet  orange  yields  from  the  flowers  and  leaves  Oils  of  Neroli  and  Petit- 
Grain,  but  they  are  scant  in  quantity  and  poor  in  quality.  They  are  known 
commercially  as  Neroli  Portugal  and  Petit-Grain  Portugal. 

The  fruit  of  a  variety  of  the  C.  aurantium,  known  as  Cura^oa  orange, 
yields  an  essential  oil  of  a  peculiar  flavor ;  the  fruit  of  C.  rayrtifolius,  the 
mandarin  orange,  another. 

Statistics.  —  North  America  is  largely  supplied  with  oranges  from  Jamaica, 
the  Bahamas,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  the  extensive  and  rapidly 
increasing  cultivation  of  the  tree  iu  Florida  and  southern  California  is  begin- 
ning to  supersede  the  foreign  importation. 

The  climate  of  Florida  is  remarkably  adapted  for  orange  culture,  and 
orangeries  are  becoming  yearly  more  numerous  and  more  extensive.  In  the 
other  Gulf  States  this  industry  is  pursued  to  some  extent,  and  in  California 
the  orange  groves  are  very  productive. 

Oil  of  orange-peel  and  oil  of  orange-flower  are  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  great  quantities. 

Large  numbers  of  oranges  are  exported  to  Great  Britain  from  the  Azores, 
from  Portugal,  and  from  Spain,  Sicily,  and  other  Mediterranean  countries. 

France  consumes  great  quantities  of  oranges,  a  large  percentage  of  them 
being  exported  from  Algeria. 

The  loss  by  decay  on  European  oranges  is  37  in  each  100;  on  those  from 
American  ports  33  in  each  100  (the  voyage  being  shorter). 

2.  C.  decumana.  (Shaddock.)  Tree  from  15  to  20  feet  in  height,  forming 
spreading  head  ,  branches  armed  with  prickles.  Leaves  downy  underneath, 
ovate,  somewhat  acute,  occasionally  blunt ;  wings  of  the  petioles  as  broad 
as  the  leaves  and  heart-shaped  at  the  base.  Flower  white;  stamens  10- 
30;  petals  5;  sepals  5.  Fruit  a  berry  of  a  dull  greenish-yellow,  form  an 
oblate  spheroid,  from  4  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  said  that  in  Jajiau 
it  grows  to  tlie  size  of  a  child's  head,  weighing  14  pounds.  The  pulp  of  those 
brought  to  the  American  market  is  bitter,  tliuugli  in  th?  varieties  grown  in 
Pr.  Fi    -  ' 


82  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

China  and  Japan  it  is  sweet.  As  it  is  propagated  from  seed  the  varieties  are 
numerous. 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  Shaddock  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orange 
and  lemon.  It  is  cultivated  in  China,  Japan,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
and  has  been  carried  by  Europeans  to  the  West  Indies  and  southern  Europe. 

Etymology.  —  The  application  of  the  name  decamana,  which  signifies  "  by 
tens,"  is  not  apparent.  The  common  name,  Shaddock,  was  given  because  it 
was  taken  from  China  to  the  West  Indies  by  Captain  Shaddock. 

History.  —  According  to  the  best  authorities  the  home  of  the  Shaddock  is* 
the  islands  south  of  Asia.  It  is  cultivated  in  China,  where  it  is  called  sweet 
ball,  on  account  of  the  sweet  taste  of  the  pulp.  The  varieties  brought  to  our 
market  are  bitter.  The  trees  are  raised  from  seed,  and  the  Chinese  engraft  or 
propagate  upon  them  buds  and  cuttings  of  the  sweet  varieties. 

The  tree  is  a  beautiful  evergreen,  with  dark,  shining  leaves  always  adorned 
with  fruit,  and  part  of  the  time  with  both  flowers  and  fruit,  —  the  fruit  in  vari- 
ous stages  of  advancement  making  the  most  charming  object  imaginable  for 
the  lawn,  in  all  regions  of  no  frost. 

The  fruit  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

3.  C.  Limonum,  Risso.  (Lemon.)  Stem  12  to  15  feet  high,  branched  into  a 
symmetrical  head,  branches  armed.  Leaf  ovoid  or  elliptical,  dark  green  on 
both  sides,  leathery,  entire,  petioles  winged.  Elower  white  and  fragrant.  Fruit 
a  golden  yellow,  from  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  lengthened  at  the  poles, 
making  a  prolate  spheroidal  berrv,  ending  in  a  short,  teat-like  process;  pulp  is 
divided  into  cells  or  compartments  from  10  to  20  in  number,  each  containing 
one  or  more  seeds.  In  the  cultivated  varieties  the  seeds  are  frequently  few 
ill  number,  many  cells  being  vacant. 

Varieties.  —  Like  the  orange  it  sports  freely,  and  there  are  38  distinct  varie- 
ties, all  of  which  possess  some  prominent  quality  which  commends  them  to  the 
grower,  —  the  differences  being  in  size,  shape,  thickness  of  skin,  or  intensity 
of  acidity. 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  lemon  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orange. 
Most  of  the  lemons  that  enter  into  commerce  are  grown  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  island  of  Sicily  produces  excellent  lemons,  and  sends  nearly  all  it  produces 
to  the  U.  S.    Large  quantities  are  now  grown  in  Florida. 

Etymology.  —  The  specific  name  of  the  lemon  is  from  Lymoun,  the  Arabic 
name  for  lemon.  The  common  name,  lemon,  is  a  corruption  of  the  specific 
name,  Limonum. 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  lemon  is  India  and  western  Asia.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Jews.  Theophrastus  and  Dioscorides 
both  speak  of  it,  but  it  was  not  known  to  any  extent  in  Europe  before  the 
Crusades,  at  which  time  it  is  said  to  have  been  carried  into  western  Europe 
from  Syria,  where  it  had  been  brought  by  the  Arabs  from  beyond  the  Ganges. 
Writers  of  the  twelfth  century  inform  us  that  it  was  common  in  Italy  and 
Egypt.  It  has  also  been  stated  that  it  was  under  cultivation  in  Italy  in  the 
third  century. 

4.  C.  Limetta,  Risso.  (Lime.)  Small  tree,  8  to  10  feet  in  height,  trunk 
crooked  or  zigzag,  forming  a  dense,  spreading  head  6  to  8  feet  in  diameter, 
branches  armed  with  sharp,  strong  spines,  or  prickles ;  some  of  the  petioles 
winged.  Leaves  ovate-orbicular,  serrate-toothed  or  entire,  dark  green  above, 
lighter  underneath.  Flowers  white  ;  petals  5.  Stamens  sometimes  30  in 
uuraber.      Fruit  a  globular  berry,  protruding  at  top,  an  inch  and  a  half  in 


MELlACEiE.  83 

diameter,  dull  yellow;  skiu  thin  ;  pulp  sliarply  acid,  divided  like  other  species 
of  the  genus  iuto  a  uumber  of  cells,  contaiuiug  1  or  more  seeds  eadi. 

Varieties.  —  Less  atteutiou  has  been  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  lime  than 
to  that  of  the  orange,  hence  the  varieties  are  less  numerous  than  of  any  other 
species  of  this  genus. 

Geograj)lit/.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  lime  is  subtropical  and  trop- 
ical. It  arrives  at  the  greatest  height  of  fruit-bearing  in  a  temperature  not 
below  70°  Fahrenheit.  It  grows  well  in  southern  India,  and  in  the  West 
India  Islands,  in  southern  Europe,  and  in  uortiiern  Africa. 

Etjjuwlogi).  —  The  specific  name  of  the  lime,  Limella,  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  city  of  Lima,  near  which  it  was  largely  cultivated,  and  the  common, 
or  Englisli  name,  lime,  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  botanic  name.  Tliis  history 
of  the  name  is  not  to  be  depended  upon. 

Histori/.  —  The  lio)ne  of  the  lime  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  species 
of  this  genus,  India  east  of  the  Indus,  whence  it  was  carried  iuto  western 
Asia,  southern  Europe,  and  northern  Africa  by  the  Arabs  ;  but  as  it  is 
not  edible,  its  culture  for  fruit  was  not  prosecuted.  Much  attention  has 
been  paid  to  its  cultivation  of  late  in  the  British  West  Indies.  It  grows 
and  fruits  weU  in  moderately  fertile  soil,  needs  but  little  care,  and  lives  to  a 
great  age. 

Use.  — The  lime  is  used  for  its  juice,  which  is  the  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  citric  acid.  It  is  also  useful  for  setting  or  fixing  dyes.  The  juice  is 
more  acid  than  the  juice  of  the  lemon,  though  by  some  it  is  considered  more 
palatable.  It  is  an  important  article  of  commerce  between  Portugal  and  Eng- 
land, countries  of  central  Europe,  and  the  United  States.  In  the  West  Indies 
it  is  cultivated  for  liedging  as  well  as  for  its  fruit. 

Statistics.  —  Lime  juice  is  manufactured  in  large  quantities  in  the  British 
West  Indies.  Nearly  13,000  gallons  are  annually  exported  from  the  island  of 
Domingo  alone.  The  ports  of  southern  Spain  export  large  quantities  of  the 
fruit  as  well  as  of  the  juice.  It  is  consumed  in  France,  Germany,  England, 
and  the  United  States. 

5.  C.  Medica,  Risso.    (Citron.)    Fruit  oblong,  6  inches  long  ;  rind  thick. 


Order  XV.    MELIACE^. 

The  characters  of  this  order  are  like  those  of  Rutacese.  Leaves 
alternate  and  pinnate.  Stamens  united,  forming  a  tube,  the  introrse 
anthers  sessile  on  its  toi).     Leaves  rarely  dotted.     Mostly  trees. 

Number  of  genera,  37. 

SWIETENIA,  L.  Calyx  5-cleft.  Petals  7.  Stamens  10,  united  into 
a  tube  with  10  teeth,  inclosing  the  anthers.  Style  short.  Stigma  5- 
rayed.  Leaves  alternate,  even-pinnate.  Leaflets  opposite,  entire,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  unequal  at  the  base.  Flowers  greenish-yellow,  in  axillary 
panicles.  Fruit  woody,  pear-shaped,  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  5-celled, 
5-valved;  seeds  numerous  and  winged,  imbricated  in  two  rows.  Large 
tree. 

S.  mahogani,  L.  ( Malic )gany  Tree.)  Stem  80  to  100  feet  high,  and  .'i  to  8 
feet  in  diameter.    Irregularly  branched.    Leaves  compound,  with  four  pairs  of 


84  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

leaflets,  green,  shining,  and  about  two  and  a  half  inches  long.  Flowers  small, 
in  a  thyrse,  yellowish-white. 

This  is  the  only  species  of  the  genus. 

Geography.  —  The  mahogany  is  tropical  or  subtropical.  It  is  indigenous 
to  the  West  Indies,  the  Bahamas,  Central  America,  and  to  southern  Florida. 
It  has  been  planted  and  is  successfully  growing  in  southern  British  India. 


SwiETENiA   MAHOGANi   (Mahogfany). 

Etymology.  —  Sicietenki  was  the  name  given  by  Jaquin,  in  honor  of  Gerard 
L.  B.  Van  Swieten.  Mahogani  is  the  name  by  which  the  tree  is  known  to 
the  aborigines  of  South  and  Central  America,  but  the  signification  of  this  is 
unknown. 

History.  —  This  beautiful  wood  was  introduced  to  notice  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.     A  few  planks  were  sent  to  Dr.  Gibbon  of  London 


Mahogany. 


by  his  brother,  a  sea-captain,  sailing  to  the  West  Indies.  At  the  time  he  re- 
ceived them  he  was  erecting  a  dwelling,  and  gave  the  planks  to  his  joiner  to 
finish  some  part  of  the  house ;  but  the  workmen  refused  to  use  them  on  ac- 
count of  the  hardness  of  the  wood.     The  cabinet-maker  was  then  ordered  to 


ILICINE^.  85 

construct  a  candle-box  of  a  part  of  one  of  tlie  planks,  which,  when  finished, 
so  far  exceeded  in  fineness  all  Giijbou's  other  furniture  that  it  became  an 
object  of  notice  and  wonder,  and  was  placed  upon  exhilntion.  Soon  after 
this  it  became  a  favorite  material  for  the  construction  of  furniture,  and  very 
speedily  found  its  way  into  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy  classes. 

Mahogany  is  to  this  day  the  favorite  wood  for  cabinet  ware.  The  tree  was 
first  noticed  as  a  native  of  the  teriitory  of  the  United  States  hy  Dr.  Muhlen- 
berg. It  is  found  on  the  Florida  Keys,  reaching  the  height  of  50  to  90  feet. 
That  which  furnishes  the  fine  curls  and  apparent  interlacing  of  the  fibers,  used 
for  veneers,  grows  on  rocky  hillsides,  and  is  from  that  jjart  of  the  tree  wliere 
the  branches  join  the  trunk.  It  is  said  to  attain  a  great  age.  Sir  William 
Hooker  counted  200  rings  in  a  bhx-k,  l)ut  the  rings  may  not  each  have  denoted 
a  year. 

Use. Malioganv  is  one  of  the  best  woods  known  to  the  cabinet-maker. 

The  finest  is  sawn  into  thin  slices  and  used  for  veneers.  It  is  worked  into 
chairs,  tables,  cabinets,  desks,  bureaus,  l)edsteads,  and  other  furniture,  and  is 
nmch  more  common  in  Europe  than  with  us.  Its  value  depends  upon  its 
hardness,  and  its  ability  to  take  a  high  polish.  It  is  not  liable  to  shrink  and 
warp.  It  was  formerly  used  in  naval  architecture,  and  ranked  by  the  English 
as  second  to  the  celebrated  English  oak  for  that  purpose.  On  the  Bay  shore 
in  Central  America  the  wood  of  the  mahogany,  which  is  coarser  grained  and 
softer,  is  used  for  inferior  purposes,  such  as  common  tables,  wainscoting,  floor- 
ing, the  making  of  cigar-boxes,  etc.,  and  is  called  Bay  Wood. 

There  is  a  bitter  principle  residing  in  the  bark  which  is  efficacious  in  remit- 
tent fevers,  and  the  bark  is  used  by  the  natives  in  the  same  way  and  for  the 
same  purposes  as  the  cinchona  bark. 

Statistics.  — GYea,t  (luantities  are  imported  annually  by  England  and  by 
the  United  States.  A  single  log  has  been  known  to  sell  for  S5,000  ;  this 
when  sliced  up  into  material  for  veneers  was  made  to  cover  an  immense 
surface. 


Order  XVI.     ILICINE^. 

Sepals  4-6,  inihricated  in  tlie  Inid,  small.  Corolla  4-6  cleft, 
hypogynous,  imbricated  in  the  bud.  Stamens  inserted  in  the  throat 
of  the  corolla,  alternate  with  the  segments  ;  anthers  adnate.  Flowers 
perfect,  small,  solitary,  or  grouped  in  the  axils  of  tlie  leaves.  Fruit 
a  drupe.  Leaves  alternate  or  opposite,  simple,  leathery,  glabrous, 
shining,  and  witliout  stipules.     Trees  and  shrubs. 

Number  of  genera,  0. 

ILEX,  L.  (Holly.)  Calyx  with  4  or  .")  tcctli.  Corolla  4-5-clefl. 
wheel-shaped.  Stamens  4-.'),  alternating  with  the  segments  of  the 
corolla.  Ovary  sessile,  with  4  stigmas.  Berry  with  4  or  5  one-seeded 
nuts.     Small  tree. 

I.  Paraguayensis,  Lamb.  (Paraguay  Tea,  or  Verba  Mate.)  Stem  from  .5 
to  15  feet  in  hciglit  and  ^  to  0  inches  in  diameter.  Much  branched.  Leaves 
alternate,  oval,  crenate.  glossy,  leathery,  4  inches  long,  evergreen.  <lark  green 
above,  paler  underneath.     Fruit  a  berry,  bright  red,  small  and  smooth. 


86 


DESCKIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


There  are  many  species  to  this  genus,  and  as  it  is  propagated  from  the  seed 
it  has  many  varieties  The  I.  Paraguayensis  is  very  constant,  and  is  the  only 
species  whose  leaves  furnish  tea. 

Geography.  —  This  plant  is  indigenous  to  Paraguay,  and  forms  entire  forests, 
extending  over  large  tracts  throughout  the  central,  eastern,  and  northern 
parts  of  the  republic.  It  is  also  found  under  cultivation,  but  no  observations 
have  been  made  to  justify  a  statement  as  to  the  comparative  value  of  the  culti- 
vated plants.  The  Jesuits,  previous  to  their  expulsion  from  Paraguay  in 
1867,  gave  great  attention  to  its  cultivation,  and  instructed  the  natives  in  its 
preparation.  It  grows  also  in  Paranagua,  but  that  found  in  Paraguay  yields 
four  times  the  strength.  The  Government  monopolizes  the  sale,  buying  cheap 
and  selling  at  a  high  price,  thus  securing  a  large  revenue. 


Ilex  Paraguayensis  (Paraguay  Tea). 

Statistics.  —  Europeans  do  not  usually  relish  its  peculiarly  bitter  taste.  The 
inhabitants  of  South  America,  on  the  other  hand,  prize  it  highly,  and  have 
come  to  consider  it,  not  as  an  article  of  luxury,  but  as  one  of  necessity.  In 
harvesting,  the  work  is  so  carelessly  and  slovenly  done  that  the  plant  in  a 
wild  state  is  rapidly  undergoing  destruction.  Its  increasing  demand  will 
bring  about  a  more  careful  method  of  harvesting.  In  Parana  about  10,000,000 
pounds  are  annually  produced.  About  6,000  persons  are  employed  in  Brazil 
in  the  preparation  of  Mate  ;  and  about  3,000,000  pounds  are  shipped  annually 
at  Itaguy,  a  town  on  the  Uruguay. 

Etymology.  —  Ilex  received  its  generic  name  from  the  resemblance  of  its  leaf 
to  that  of  the  Quercus  Ilex.  The  specific  name  is  from  the  country  where  it 
is  found  indigenous  (Paraguay).  Holly,  the  common  name  of  the  genus,  is 
a  corruption  of  the  word  holy.  Holly  bush,  or  Holly  tree,  —  that  is,  holy- 
tree,  because  the  evergreen  leaves  of  the  Ilex  opaca  are  used  for  decoration  at 
the  holy  time  of  Christmas. 

Chemistry.  —  The  leaf  of  the  I.  Paraguayensis  yields  to  chemical  analysis 
about  the  same  percentage  of  Theine  as  the  leaves  of  the  Thea  viridis. 


RHAMNACE^v. 


87 


Preparation  and  6',sc.  — The  small  hraiichos  arc  cut  or  broken  from  the 
tree;  they  are  thrown  upon  a  wire  gauze  over  a  tire  and  thus  dried;  the 
leaves  and  twigs  are  then  bruised  or  ground  in  a  rude  mill,  which  reduces 
the  whole  to  powder.  It  is  theu  packed  in  green  bullock-hides,  making  pack- 
ages of  about  200  ])Ounds  each,  and  thus  sent  to  market. 

^\Jarts. It  is   carried  to   Itaguy,   on  the  Uruguay,  and    to  the  ports  of 

Porto  Algre,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay.  From  the  last  three  ports  about 
13,000,000  pounds  are  annually  exported. 


Order  XVII.    RHAMNACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  or  defective,  regular,  perigynous.  Sepals,  petals, 
and  stamens  4-5.  frequently  apetalous  ;  stamens  alternate  with  the 
valvate  sepals,  and  opposite  to  the  petals.  Fruit  a  1-seeded  capsule. 
Trees  and  shrubs. 

Number  of  genera,  37. 

RHAMNUS,  L.  (Buckthorn.)  Calyx  pitcher-shaped,  from  4-5-cleft. 
Petals  notched,  sometimes  wanting.  No.  of  styles,  2-4,  partially 
united.  Drupe  with  2-4  cartilaginous  nuts.  Leaves  opposite  or  alter- 
nate.    Flowers  in  clusters,  axillary.     Shrubs  and  small  trees. 

R.  infectorius,  L.     (Yellow  Berries.)     Stem  made  up  of  ramifications  com- 

mencing  to  branch  at  the  root,  subprocumhent ;  the  assurgent,  spiny  branches 

rising  to  the  height  of  2   feet.      Leaves 

ovate-lanceolate,  serrulate,  smoothish,  and 

deciduous.      Flowers  dicecious;  petals  in 

both  sexes  greenish-yellow.  Fruit  3-seeded, 

black  when  ripe,  but  harvested  when  green, 

to  be  used  for  a  dye  by  calico  printers. 
Geography.  —  This  plant  grows  as  far 

north  as  England,  though  it  properly  be- 
longs to  a  more  southern  climate.      Its 

native   haunts   are   southern   Persia  and 

southern  countries  of  the  Levant.  The 
fruit  is  known  in  commerce  also  as  Persian 
berries. 

R.  chlorophorus  and  K.  utilis  are  natives 

of  China.     Their  fruit  yields  a  fine  green 

dye  for  silk,  which  is  imported  into  Euroi)e 

under  the  name  of  Chinese  Green  Indigo. 

Eti/molof/}/.  —  R/iamiiiis  is  derived  from 

tuft  of  branches.    The  specific  name  come;  .....--    

tinge,  or  paint.  Buclthorv,  the  common  name  of  the  genus,  is  not  easily  ex- 
plained. Indeed  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  why  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
plant.  Some  suppose  it  is  due  to  its  crooked  stems,  which  re.>*emhle  the  horns 
of  the  buck.  It  is  also  known  under  the  name  of  Yellow  Berries,  on  account 
of  the  color  produced  by  the  fruit. 

/f/.s/or^.  _  The  home  of  the  Rhamnus  infectorius.  the  Staininq  bnckthorn, 
is  Persia,  Syria,  and  southern  Europe.      It  is  cultivated  in  Turkey  and  the 


Rhamnus  infectorius  (Yellow  Berries). 

the  Celtic  word  ram,  a  bunch  or 
from  the  I^atin  word  inficio,  color, 


88  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

Levant,  and  in  the  south  of  France.  The  largest  and  best  berries  come  from 
Persia. 

Use.  —  The  berries  furnish  a  yellow  dye,  which  is  employed  in  the  dyeing 
of  morocco  in  Turkey,  and  in  calico  printing.  It  also  produces,  by  the  aid  of 
chemicals,  the  Sap  green  and  the  Dutch  pink. 

Marts.  —  'I'he  Persian  berries  come  from  Aleppo  and  Smyrna.  Some 
are  also  shipped  from  France  and  Turkey.  These  ports  sliip  to  England 
annually  1,200,000  pounds,  but  more  are  used  in  the  countries  where  they  are 
produced. 

CEANOTHUS,  L.  (New  Jersey  Tea.  Red  Root.)  Calyx  a  semi-globular 
tube,  with  5  segments.  Petals  clawed,  rolled  in  at  the  edges,  bend- 
ing down.  Stamens  with  ovate,  2-celled  anthers.  Styles  3,  diverging. 
Stigmas  papillate.    Fruit  tricoccous.    Small  shrub,  1  to  3  feet  high. 

C.  Americanus,  L.  (New  Jersey  Tea.)  Stem  1  to 
3  feet  high,  1  inch  in  diameter.  Leaf  ovate-acumi- 
nate, serrate,  pubescent  beneath,  alternate,  stipulate. 
Flowers  in  a  thyrse,  axillary. 

Geography.  —  Geographical  limits,  eastern  North 
America. 

Etymology. —  Ceanothus,  is  derived  from  Kedvudos^ 
a  name  given  by  Theophrastus  to  indicate  a  plant  with 
P^       VC^  spines,  from  /ceco,  prick,  split,  or  cleave.     It  does  not 

\^/3!^^^  ^PP^.'*^  ^^"^11  ^'^  ^^^®  American  plant,  which  is  without 

^  (<M  K  »        thorns.     The  specific  name  explains  itself.    The  com- 

mon name,  Red  Root,  is  given  on  account  of  the  color 
of  the  roots,  and  New  Jersey  tea  is  a  name  given  be- 

_  .  cause  it  is  said  that  the  leaves  were  used  in  New  Jersey, 

Ceanothus  Americanus        ,     .         ,       .  i-  ^i      ti       i   .•        r      . 

(New  Jersey  Tea).  durmg  the  tnne  of  the  Kevolution,  tor  tea. 

Use.  —  The  young  leaves  are  collected  and  dried  in 
the  shade,  when  they  are  said  to  furnish  a  beverage  superior  in  flavor,  and 
resembling  the  China  teas.  It  has  become  an  article  of  local  commerce  in 
some  parts  of  Pennsylvania.* 


Order  XVIII.    AMPELIDE^. 

Woody,  climbing  by  tendrils.  Calyx  small;  petals  5;  stamens 
5 ;  stigmas  sessile  and  capitate ;  filaments  distinct,  or  slightly  coher- 
ing at  the  base.  Ovarium  2-celled;  fruit  a  pulpy  berry;  seeds  4-5, 
bony;  leaves  simple,  alternate,  stipuled,  palmately  veined;  tendrils 
opposite  the  leaves.  Trees  or  shrubs,  usually  climbing  by  tendrils. 
Small  number  of  genera.  (The  term  rme  is  used  widely  in  America 
for  every  climbing  or  trailing  plant.) 


VITIS,  L.     (Grape  Vine.)     Petals  deciduous,  spreading,  or  attached 
at  the  top.     Calyx  very  short,  entire,  or  obscurely  5-toothed. 

*  The  young  leaves  of  the  Rubiis   strigosus  (common  red  raspberry)  when  dried  are 
used  for  tea,  and  are  said  to  be  far  superior  to  the  common  grades  of  the  imported  article. 


AMPELIDE^. 


89 


Although  the  gemis  Vitis  comprises  more  than  200  species,  mostly 
natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  regiojis,  less  than  half  a  dozen 
species  have  any  economic  value. 

1.  V.  labrusca,  L.  (P'ox  Grape.)  Stem  trailing  or  climbing  into  trees, 
reaching  sometimes  the  enormous  height  of  100  feet,  branching  freely.  When 
In  the  borders  of  woods,  it  sends  out  lateral  branches,  covering  the  shrubbery 
and  small  trees  for  long  distances.  The  main  vino  somotimos  attains  a  diam- 
eter of  6  inches  or  more;  bark  rough,  sloughing  off  in 
strips.  Leaves  very  large,  3-lobed  ;  when  young,  white 
and  downy  beneath.  Flowers  in  compound  panicles, 
green,  and  opposite  the  leaves.  Fruit  globular,  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Species.  —  There  are  6  other  species  growing  in 
North  America,  but  most  of  the  varieties  now  under 
cultivation  in  the  United  States,  amounting  to  several 
hundred,  are  seedlings  of  the  V.  labrusca  or  its  off- 
spring. 


VlTlS  LABRUSCA 

(Fox  Grape). 


2.  V.  vinifera,  L.  (European  AVine  (irape.)  Habit 
of  stem  as  V.  labrusca.  Leaves  cordate,  5-lobed, 
deeply  sinufite,  serrate,  downy  underneath.     Flowers 

greenish-yellow,  odorous.  Fruit  green,  red,  or  black.  This  is  the  wine  gra])e 
of  Europe,  from  which  hundreds  of  forms  have  been  obtained.  All  the  vari- 
eties of  the  grapes  raised  under  glass  in  xVmerica  are  seedhngs  of  this  vine  or 
of  its  progeny  There  are  also  hardy  varieties  from  it  grown  in  the  United 
States.  Zante  Currants,  the  name  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Corinth,  from  the  city  of  that  name  whence  they  were  formerlv  shipped,  are 
a  small  variety  of  the  V.  vinifera.  They  form  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce. 

Geor/rap/tij.  —  The  zone  of  the  grape  extends  from  about  21  degrees  of 
north  latitude  to  48.     In  the  old  world  this  belt  trends  east  from  the  British 

Isles  and  Portugal  to  Per- 
sia, but  the  fruit  ri]»ons  to 
greatest  perfection  along 
the  middle  and  southern 
parts  of  the  belt.  In  the 
new  world  the  zone  does 
not  extend  above  the  4.3d 
degree  north  latitude, 
reaching  south  to  .33  de- 
grees, trending  east  and 
west  from  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
coa.st.  The  centers  of 
growth  are  the  middle  At- 
lantic states  and  ( 'alifornia. 
In  late  years  tlic  ^lape  has  been  larj^ely  tulti vat «'d  in   .\ustralin. 

Ktymolof/i/.  —  Thti  generic  name,  Vids,  is  derived  from  the  Celtic  word  (liriil, 
.signifying  "  the  best  of  trees."  This  origin  is  disputed,  and  it  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  an  .\ryan  root,  Wl,  signifying  to  hind,  or  twine.  The  specific 
name,    lahnisca,  is  a  Latin  word,  signifying  "wild,"  and  the  name  vinifera  is 


Vitis  vinifkra  (Kiiropean  Wine  Grape). 


90  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

from  two  Latin  words,  vinum,  wine,  and /ero,  bear,  whence  wine-hearing  plant. 
The  common  name,  grape,  is  from  the  old  French  rappe,  a  bunch  or  cluster. 

Historij.  —  The  grape  was  known  to  man  at  a  ver}^  early  period  of  his 
existence.  Mention  of  this  fruit  comes  down  to  us  among  the  first  records  of 
history.  Pictures  left  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  remains  by  the  lake- 
dwellers  of  Italy  and  Switzerland,  from  the  bronze  age,  reveal  to  us  that  the 
grape  was  known  to  those  peoples.  It  was  cultivated  in  Egypt  as  early  as 
4000  B.  C. ;  not  in  China  until  122  B.  C.  The  Egyptians  and  the  Greeks 
both  have  a  mythological  history  of  the  introduction  of  tlie  grape. 

The  ancient  Scriptures  frequently  speak  of  the  grape.  The  weight  of  his- 
tory points  to  western  Asia  as  the  home  of  the  species  known  as  the  Vitis 
vinifera,  but  there  seems  little  doubt  that  it  is  also  native  to  Europe.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  England  by  the  Romans,  yet  it  was  not 
known  there  during  the  time  of  Agricola,  Avho  was  governor  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius  Caesar,  about  78  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  But 
among  the  earliest  conveyances  of  estates  under  the  Saxon  rule  vineyards  are 
named.  And  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Norman  vine^-ards  are  among  the 
valuables  enumerated  in  the  Dooms-Day  Book. '  It  is  also  recorded  that  in 
the  twelfth  century  there  was  a  vineyard  attached  to  every  monastery  in  the 
south  of  England. 

The  grape  is  indigenous  to  America,  and  much  attention  lias  of  late  years 
been  given  to  its  cultivation.  In  the  United  States  it  has  become  a  very  large 
and  important  industry,  and  considerable  wine  is  made  in  Ohio,  Indiana.  New 
York,  and  in  California. 

The  best  wines  and  brandies  are  made  in  southern  Europe.  Soutliern  Ger- 
many, Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Madeira  are  wine-making  countries  ;  but 
France  is  the  great  wine-producing  nation.  More  tlian  .500,000,000  gallons 
are  produced  annually  in  France  alone.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  much  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  production  of  raisins,  which  are  the  sweet  grapes  of  these 
countries  dried.  Along  the  southern  shores  of  Spain  and  Greece  the  grape 
forms  sugar  in  abundance,  but  does  not  easily  enter  into  vinous  fermentation, 
hence  the  fruit  is  dried ;  and  the  raisin  crop  is  one  of  great  economic  and 
commercial  importance. 

Cultivation.  —  The  vine  requires  a  high  summer  temperature  and  a  pro- 
longed period  in  which  to  ripen  its  fruit.  When  these  conditions  exist  it  can 
be  profitably  cultivated,  even  though  the  winter  temperature  be  very  low.  In 
the  Alps  it  is  profitably  cultivated  to  an  altitude  of  1 870  feet,  and  in  the  north 
of  Piedmont  as  high  as  3180  feet. 

Use.  —  The  grape  is  among  the  most  delicious  and  highly  prized  fruits  of 
the  temperate  zone.  It  is  a  great  favorite  as  a  dessert,  and  for  a  table  orna- 
ment has  no  equal;  it  is  also  preserved,  and  is  a  favorite  jelly  material. 
The  raisin,  or  grape  in  a  dried  state,  is  also  a  favorite  dessert.  In  central 
and  southern  France  and  Italy  the  chief  use  made  of  the  grape  is  for  the 
manufacture  of  wine.  The  common  wines  are  cheap,  but  the  finer  sorts  cost 
several  dollars  a  bottle. 

Argols  is  the  commercial  name  for  the  crude  deposit  from  wine,  which 
forms  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  wine  casks,  from  which  Cream  of  Tartar,  or 
Bitartrate  of  Potassa,  and  Tartaric  Acid  are  obtained. 

Diseases  of  the  Vine.  —  The  organic  diseases  which  affect  the  vine  may  be 
divided  into  two  categories,  —  those  caused  by  parasitic  fungi,  and  those 
caused  by  insects.  In  1849  the  vine  in  France,  southern  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Spain  was  attacked  by  a  mildew  fungus,  Oidum  Tiickeri,  which  in  many 


SAPIN.DACE^.  91 

localities  destroyed  the  erop.  After  some  years  this  hlight  disappeared,  and 
a  new  pest  made  its  appearance,  in  the  character  of  a  tiny  insect,  the  Phyl- 
loxera vastatrix,  which  lives  and  projjagates  upon  the  roots  of  the  vine,  and  in 
a  very  short  time  destroys  the  plant.  There  are  certain  symptoms  of  the  dis- 
ease caused  by  this  insect  by  means  of  which  an  infected  spot  may  be  readily 
recognized.  The  vines  become  stunted  and  Ijear  few  leave.s,  and  those  are 
small.  When  the  disease  reaches  an  advanced  stage,  tlie  leaves  are  discolored 
yellow  or  reddish,  with  tiie  edges  turned  back  or  withered.  The  grapes  are 
arrested  in  growth,  and  their  skin  is  wrinkled. 

I'lants  grown  in  California  possess  the  power  to  resist  this  enemy  better  than 
those  grown  in  Europe,  and  are  frequently  used  for  stocks  upon  which  to  graft 
the  European  plants. 

Marts.  —  Tlie  great  markets  for  cx])ort  arc  Marseilles,  Bordeaux,  and 
Havre,  in  France  ;  (ienoa  and  Naples  in  Italy,  —  l>ut  mostly  Malaga  and  Lisbon. 
The  im]iort  markets  are  Liverpool  and  London,  in  England ;  the  north  German 
ports,  in  northern  Europe ;  New  York  and  Boston,  in  the  United  States ;  and 
Quebec,  in  Canada. 

Order  XIX.    SAPINDACE^. 

Flowers  iinsvmmetrical.  Stamens  sometimes  twice  as  many  as 
calyx-lobes  or  sepals,  usually  fewer,  or  equal,  alternating  with  the 
petals  in  the  Maple  family  (sub-order  Acerinea:).  Flowers  usually 
polygamous  or  dioecious,  sometimes  without  petals.  Ovary  2-lobed  and 
2-celled,  2  ovules  in  a  cell,  maturing  one  seed  in  each  cell.  Fruit  winged, 
cotyledons  crumpled  in  the  embryo.  Leaves  opposite,  exstipulate, 
lobed.     Trees  and  shrubs. 

Genera,  73. 

ACER,  L.  (^Maple.)  Calyx  .5-parted.  Petals  5,  sometimes  4-12. 
Stamens  4-12.  Anthers  2-lobed,  seeds  2,  sometimes  3.  in  a  2-winged 
vessel  or  samara  united  at  the  base,  wings  diverging.  Leaves  simple, 
opposite,  lol)ed.     Trees.     Flowers  axillary,  in  corymbs. 

A.  saccharinum.  ^Nlarsh.  (Sugar  Maple.  Rock  Maple.  Bird'.s-eye  ^laple.) 
vStem  .50  to  80  feet  high,  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter;  branches  erect;  head  sym- 
metrical. Leaves  cordate,  smooth,  glaucous  beneath,  green  above,  5-lobed ; 
lolies  acuminate,  coarsely  toothed  or  sublobed.  Flowers  small,  yellowish,  on 
long,  slender  peduncle.?.  Samaras  brown  when  ripe.  Flowers  in  May.  Fruit 
ripe  in  September. 

Var.  nigrum  (Mx.  f.),  Britt.  (Black  Majdo.)  A.  nigrum,  Mx.  f.  (Sugar 
Tree.) 

This  species  or  variety  is  like  the  A.  saccharinum,  with  darker  leaves,  some- 
times nearly  peltate  ;  bark  rough.  The  sap  is  as  rich  in  sugar  as  the  sap  of 
A.  saccharinum. 

The  leaves  of  lioth  these  species  are  about  .5  indies  wide,  and  from  ;')  to  7 
inches  long  when  the  tree  is  young,  shorter  as  the  tree  gnnvs  older,  palmately 
or  unevenly  divided  into  .')  lobes;  edges  coarsely  toothed. 

Geographi/.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  sugar  tree  is  not  great.  It 
does  not  flourish  south  of  .38°  N.  latitude  except  in  high  mountains.  It 
abounds  in  tlie  nortlieni  parts  of  tlie  Fnitcil  States  and  in  .southern  British 
America. 


92 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Etymology.  —  Acer  is  a  Latin  word,  signifying  sharp,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  applied  to  the  maple  tree  because  it  was,  on  account  of  its  hardness, 
used  for  spears.  Saccharinum,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Latin  word 
saccharum,  sugar,  due  to  the  sugar-bearing  sap.  Nigrum,  name  of  the  variety, 
is  a  Latin  word  signifying  black,  due  to  the  dark  foliage. 

History.  —  When  or  where  the  sap  of  the  maple  was  first  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar  is  not  known ;  but  Ave  have  no  record  that  sugar  was  made 
from  this  tree  till  after  the  colonization  of  northeastern  ^Vmerica.  It  is  there- 
fore probable  that  its  manufacture  was  begun  by  the  early  settlers  of  the  French 
and  British  colonies  of  this  continent.  At  the  present  time  about  10,000,000 
pounds  are  exported  from  Canada ;  allowing  5,000,000  pounds  for  home  con- 
sumption would  make  the  amount  produced  about  1 5,000,000  pounds.  In  tlie 
United  States  the  production  is  about  3-0,000,000  pounds,  which  makes  an 
aggregate  production  of  45,000,000  pounds.  The  sap  flows  from  the  tree 
through  wounds  made  in  the  trunk  near  the  ground,  into  which  are  inserted 


Acer  saccharinum  (Sugar  Maple). 


tubes ;  it  is  caught  in  pails  or  tubs  and  placed  in  large  pans,  in  which  it  is 
evaporated  by  heat  to  a  syrup.  A  tree  will  yield  from  2  to  4  pounds  yearly, 
and  will  continue  to  do  so  for  40  years  without  suffering  injury.  The  trees 
are  tapped  early  in  spring,  when  the  sap  is  ascending.  The  boiled  sap  is 
used  as  molasses  under  the  name  of  maple  molasses  or  syrup.  By  further 
evaporation,  straining,  and  refining  by  boiling  with  it  lime,  milk,  and  eggs, 
a  white  sugar  is  produced  of  a  very  delicate  flavor. 

Use.  —  Maple  Sugar  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  cane  sugar,  and 
when  purified  by  the  ordinary  modes  of  refining,  it  has  much  the  same  char- 
acter ;  but  when  used  without  refining,  it  lias  a  smoky  taste,  Avhich  is  grateful 
to  most  palates. 

The  sap  of  the  Sugar  Maple  has  been  for  more  tlian  a  century  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

The  wood  of  the  Sugar  or  Rock  Maple  is  also  of  very  great  value.  Wheel- 
wrights use  it  for  axles  of  carriages.    It  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  material 


ANACARDIArE^v.  93 

used  for  school  furniture,  Ijedsteads,  table-legs,  and  chairs.  It  also  furuishes 
to  the  cal)iuet-maker  the  beautiful  curled,  or  biril's-eye  maple,  aud  is  excellent 
for  fuel. 

Oki>er  XX.    ANACARDIACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  dicjecions,  or  iiioiifecious,  regular;  small,  spiked,  or 
[lanicled.  Sepals  o-5,  united  at  the  base.  Petals  3-.j,  sometimes 
absent,  imbricated.  Stan)ens  alternate  with  the  petals,  and  same 
number,  [)erigynous.  Ovary  1-celled,  free.  Stigmas  '4.  Fruit  a  berry 
or  drupe,  1-seeded.      Trees  and  shrubs.     Number  oi"  genera,  about  40. 

BHTJS,  L.  (Sumach.)  Sepals  connected  below,  small  and  persist- 
ent, 5  in  number ;  petals  free,  ovate,  spreading  from  the  margin  of 
a  rounded  disk  ;  stamens  5-10  or  wanting,  inserted  on  the  disk  ;  styles 
3,  sometimes  united ;  stigmas  subcapitate.  Fruit,  a  small  dry  nut, 
hard  and  globose,  1-celled.  Shrubs  with  alternate,  compound,  or 
simple  leaves. 

1.  R.  glabra,  L.  (Common  Sumach,  Smooth  Sumach.)  Stem  3  to  12  feet 
high,  much-branched,  forming  a  flattish  top  ;  l)ranch  and  leaf-stalks  smooth. 
Leaves  of  8-15  ])airs  of  sessile  leaflets,  and  a  terminal  one  which  is  petioled  ; 
upper  side  dark  green,  under  side  lighter.  Flowers  yellowish-green.  fre(|uently 
abortive,  in  densely  crowded  panicles.  Fruit  a  little  drupe,  covered  with  a 
crimson  down  which  is  charged  with  malic  acid,  sour  but  agreeable  to  the  taste. 
Flowers  appear  in  June  and  July,  fruit  in  autumn.  The  color  of  the  leaves  in 
autujnn  is  a  rich  crimson. 

•2.  R.  typhina,  L.  (Stag-horn  Sumach.)  Stem  reaches  the  height  of  20  feet ; 
It-ariets  serrate;  otherwise  as  in  R.  glabra 

.3.  R.  copallina,  L.  (Mountain  Sumach.)  Stem  from  .^)  to  12  feet  in  height, 
much-t>ranched  ;  leaflets  4-10  pairs,  with  a  terminal  one  unequal  at  the  base; 
the  common  petiole  margined  with  a  wing  between  each  pair  of  leaflets ;  other- 
wise like  R.  glabra. 

4.  R.  venenata,  DC.  (I'oison  Sumach.)  Trunk  10  to  1.")  feet  high,  tree-like. 
3  to  .5  inches  in  diameter,  branching  so  as  to  make  a  spreading  top.  Leaves  of 
3  to  6  pairs  of  leaflets,  with  a  terminal  one,  dee])  green,  shining  above  Flowers 
in  panicles,  small  and  green.  Fruit  a  drupe,  the  size  of  a  pea ;  juice  poisonous, 
producing  an  eruption  of  the  skin,  accompanied  by  swelling. 

.5  R.  Toxicodendron,  L.  (Poison  Tvy.  Poi.^on  Oak.)  Stem  trailing  or  climb- 
ing, vine-like,  10  to  50  feet  long,  fastening  it.self  to  the  trunk  of  trees  by  rootlets. 
Leaves  green,  shining,  in  threes,  terminal  leaflet  j)ointed.  Flowers  racemed 
in  axillary  panicles,  greenish.  Fruit  a  dull-white  berry  ;  juice  poisonous,  and 
forms  an  indelible  ink.  When  growing  without  supjiort.  it  assumes  the  form 
of  a  little  tree. 

G.  R.  Cotinus,  L.  (Venetian  Sumach.  Smoke  Tree.)  Stem  6  to  8  feet  high, 
irregularly  and  stragglingly  branchecl.  Leaves  alternate,  simjde,  obovate,  en- 
tire, consjiicuously  veined,  veins  nearly  at  right  angh^s  to  the  midrib,  stiff  and 
translucent,  on  long  ])etioles.  Flowers  very  small,  i)urplish,  in  loose  panicles, 
pedicles  of  abortive  flowers  lengthen  and  become  hairy  after  blooming;  groups 
of  these  feathery  ])edicles  give  the  plant  at  a  distance  the  appearance  of  a 
fleecv  cloud.     Fruit  white. 


94 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


7.  R.  coriaria,  W,  (Hide-tauuiug  Rhus.)  Stem  6  to  10  feet  in  height, 
dividiug  uear  tlie  root  into  an  irregular  ramification ;  bark  hairy,  and  of  a 
brown  color.  Leaves  compound  alternate,  in  7  or  8  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  a  ter- 
minal one  yellowish-green  and  hairy  on  the  under  side.  Flowers  in  terminal, 
loose  panicles,  greenish-white. 

Geography.  —  All  the  above-described  species  are  indigenous  in  North 
America,  except  R.  coriaria.  The  American  species  are  common  throughout 
the  northeastern  parts  of  North  America,  from  Canada  to  tlie  Gulf  States. 
The  Cotiuus  is  found  in  Arkansas,  and  is  identical  with  the  European  species, 
which  is  indigenous  from  the  Levant  to  Western  Europe.  The  Coriaria  is 
indigenous  in  Syria,  but  has  been  introduced  into  Sicily,  Italy,  and  Turkey, 
also  into  Spain  and  Portugal,  where  it  is  carefully  and  extensively  cultivated. 


Rhus  Cotinus  (Venetian  Sumach). 


The  bark  of  all  the  American  species  is  highly  charged  with  tannin.  The 
Coriaria  is  especially  rich  in  this  material,  and  is  so  highly  prized  as  to  have 
found  a  market  in  America. 

Etymology.  —  Rhus  is  from  the  Greek  word  povs,  an  old  name,  the  significa- 
tion of  which  is  not  known.  It  is  also  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Celtic  word  rhudd,  signifying  "  red,"  due  to  the  color  of  the  fruit.  Sumach 
is  supposed  to  come  from  the  Arabic  summage,  a  shrub.  Glabra  signifies 
"smooth,"  due  to  the  smoothness  of  the  leaves.  Typhina,  giant,  on  account 
of  the  size.  Copallina,  connected,  from  the  winged  petiole  by  which  the 
leaflets  are  united.  Venenata,  from  venenum,  poison.  Toxicodendron,  from 
the  Greek  to^ikov,  poison,  and  SeySpov,  a  tree,  hence  poison-tree.  Cotinus, 
ancient  name,  signification  obscure.  Coriaria,  from  corium,  a  hide,  referring 
to  the  use  of  the  bark  and  leaves  of  this  species  in  tanning  hides. 

Use.  —  The  bark  and  leaves  of  most  of  the  species  of  Rhus  are  charged 
with  tannin  of  a  superior  quality.  The  R.  glabra  In  America  and  R.  coriaria 
in  Europe  are  especially  rich  in  this  material,  which  is  used  in  making  the 
fine  moroccos. 


ANACARDIACEiE. 


95 


The  fruit  of  the  R.  glat)ra  is  used  hy  the  Thompsonian  practitioners 
as  a  reined V  for  cauker,  sore  mouth  aud  throat.  'I'he  wood  and  fruit  uf 
the  other  species  are  used  for  dyes  aud  iuks.  The  juice  of  H.  ioxicodeu- 
drou  produces  an  indelible  ink.  K.  venenata  is  very  poisonous,  causing  an 
inflamed  eruption  of  the  skin.  K.  Toxicodendron  jjroduces  similar  effects  of 
a  milder  character. 

]\/arts.  —  About  ten  million  pounds  are  carried  from  the  continent  to  Great 
Britain  annually.     It  sells  for  four  dollars  a  hundred. 


ANACARDIUM,  W.  (Cashew  Nut.)  Calyx  5-toothed  ;  corolla 
5-parted  ;  .stamens  5,  styles  8.  Fruit  a  kidney-shaped  or  heart- 
shaped  nut,  on  the  end  of  a  pear-shaped,  fleshy  peduncle,  which  is 
edible. 


Anacardicm  occidentale  (Cashew  Nut). 


A.  occidentale,  W.  Trunk  branching  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  ramify- 
ing into  a  beautiful  second-class  tree.  Leaves  eUiptical,  green,  leathery,  alter- 
nate, obcordate,  or  deeply 
eraarginate.  Flowers  in  a 
loose  corymbose  panicle,  red 
and  fragrant.  Fruit  of  the 
size  aud  somewhat  of  the 
shape  of  a  rabbit's  kidney. 

Geograph}/.  —  The  Ana- 
cardium  is  a  native  of  the 
cropical  regions  of  both 
Asia  and  America ;  flour- 
ishes in  Jamaica,  and  is 
cultivated  for  its  fruit,  and 
also  used  in  planted  grounds 
for  ornament  in  that  island. 

EtyTHoloiiy.  —  Anucar- 
ilhim,  the  generic  name,  is 

from  the  Greek  avd,  like,  and  KapSia,  heart,  heart-shaped,  due  to  the  form  of 
the  fruit.  Occidentale  is  the  Latin  word  for  west,  or  belonging  to  tlie  western 
continent. 

Use.  —  The  fleshy  stem  or  the  apple  is  eaten  as  it  is  plucked  from  the  tree; 
it  has  a  slight  acid  taste,  and  an  agreeable  flavor.  The  juice  produces  a  deli- 
cate wine;  the  wine  distilled  produces  a  liquor  far  superior  to  rum,  used  for 
disease  of  the  kidneys,  and  for  a  beverage,  in  mixing  punches,  etc.  The  dried 
and  broken  kernels  are  used  for  flavoring  Madeira  wine. 

The  cotyledons  are  inclosed  by  a  double  covering,  or  by  two  separate  shells ; 
between  these  shells  a  thick  oily  substance  forms,  which  is  inflammable. 
It  is  also  very  caustic  and  blisters  the  skin.  For  this  reason  it  has  been 
applied  by  practitioners  for  eating  away  corns,  ulcers,  ringwornis,  and  even 
cancers. 

The  kernels,  wlien  fresh,  are  eaten  raw;  they  are  also  used  for  making 
puddings,  and  tliey  form  an  ingredient  in  custards,  etc.  When  older,  the 
nut  is  roasted  and  eaten  as  chestnuts  are ;  it  is  also  roasted  and  ground  with 
cocoa  in  the  manufacture  of  chocolate.  By  tapping,  a  milky  juice  is  also 
obtained,  which  makes  an  indelible  black  ink.  A  gum,  \\hich  i)os.se.s.><es  the 
character  of  gum  arabic,  is  also  obtained  by  wouuds  uiade  iu  the  bark. 


96 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Order  XXI.     LEGUMINOS^. 

Flowers  irregular  or  regular,  perfect.  Sepals  5,  more  or  less  united, 
unequal,  the  odd  one  anterior.  Petals  5,  odd  one  posterior.  Stamens 
distinct,  or  9  united,  and  one  (the  posterior  one)  free.  Ovary  supe- 
rior, single  and  simple.  Style  and  stigma  simple.  Fruit  a  legume. 
Leaves  stipulate,  usually  compound.  Herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees.  Num- 
ber of  genera,  about  400. 

INDIGOFERA,  L.  (Indigo.)  Calyx  with  5  acute  segments ;  vexillum 
roundish  and  emarginate ;  keel  with  a  spur  on  each  side,  at  length 
reflexed ;  legume  2-valved,  and  1-  to  many-seeded.     Shrubs. 

I.  tinctoria,  L.  (Indigo  Plaut.)  Stem  2  to  3  feet  high,  and  from  a 
quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  subligneous,  branching.  Leaves  com- 
pound, consisting  of  about  6  pairs  of  longish 
bluish-green  leaflets,  and  a  terminal  soft  one, 
darker  above ;  flowers  in  axillary  racemes, 
papihonaceous  and  pale-red.  July  and  Au- 
gust. 

Species.  —  There  are  about  1 50  species  of 
this  genus,  most  of  which  yield  indigo,  but 
the  species  that  are  found  to  be  most  pro- 
ductive are  — 

1.  I.  tinctoria,  L.  (Coloring  Indigofera.) 

2.  I.  argentea,  N.  (Silver-leaved  Indigofera.) 

3.  I.  Caroliniana,  L.  (Carolina  Indigofera.) 
Besides  the   1.50  species  of  A.   De  Can- 

dolle,  there  are  as  many  or  more  varieties, 
most  of  which  yield  this  dye. 

The  following  plants  also  contain  indigo : 

Nerium  tinctorium,  Kottb.  (Apocynacese.) 

Tephrosia  tinctoria,  L.     (Leguminosas.) 

Tephrosia  apoUinea,  L. 

Tephrosia  toxicaria. 

Polygala  tinctoria,  Persoon.     (Polygalaceae.) 

Polygonum  Chinense,  L.     (Polygonaceae.)     China. 

Polygonum  tinctorium,  L.     China  and  Japan. 

Polygonum  barbatum,  L. 

Polygonum  perfoliatum,  L. 

Polygonum  aviculare,  L. 

"Wrightia  tinctoria,  R.  Brown.     (Apocynaceag.)     India. 

Amorpha  fruticosa,  L.     (Leguminosge.) 

Baptisia  tinctoria,  R.  Br.     (Leguminosse.) 

Marsdenia  tinctoria.     (Asclepiadaceae.)     India. 

Randia  aculeata.     (Cinchonaceae.)     West  Indies. 

Geography.  —  The  indigo-bearing  plants  flourish  in  a  hot  climate.  The 
Indigofera  tinctoria  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  cultivated  between  20°  and  30° 
of  north  latitude.  It  is  grown  in  Java,  the  East  Indies,  Northern  Africa,  the 
West  Indies,  and  Central  America.  That  frum  India  and  Central  America  ici 
the  most  valuable. 


Indigofera  tinctoria  (Indigo), 


leguminosjE.  97 

EtijmoJcxjy.  —  Indujofera  is  derived  fri)iii  the  Indian  wimX  indigo,  and  the 
Latin  word  fero,  bear  or  carry,  signifying  indigo-bearing.  The  specific 
name  conies  from  the  Latin  word  tincUmus,  c<jloring. 

History. —  We  do  not  know  when  indigo  was  first  used  as  a  dve.  For  some 
time  after  it  wa«  introduced  into  Europe  it  was  believed  to  be  a  mineral  sul> 
stance.  Marco  Tolo,  the  earliest  traveller  into  India  and  China,  gave  an  account 
of  the  plant  that  produces  the  indigo,  and  the  methods  of  preparing  it.  After 
the  discovery  of  America  the  plant  was  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  new 
world,  and  it  wiis  also  learned  that  tlie  ancient  Mexicans  were  ac(|uainted  with 
it  as  a  dye.  In  1747  the  ludigofera  Carolinluna  was  discovered  in  Carolina, 
and  large  (piantities  of  indigo  were  manufactured  there  and  sent  to  England, 
but  the  cultivation  in  the  United  IStates  is  not  now  prosecuted  to  any  great 
extent.  Soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  indigo-plant  in  America,  the  French 
began  to  produce  it  at  Goree,  au  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Cultivation.  —  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  eighteen  inches  apart.  The  gnjund 
should  be  damp.  The  seed  soon  germinates,  and  in  two  months  begins  to 
flower,  at  which  time  it  is  fit  to  harvest.  Great  care  is  exercised  to  cut  it  at 
the  exact  time,  to  prevent  damage  from  the  rains.  As  soon  as  harvested  it 
is  carefully  placed  in  a  vat ;  the  vat  is  then  filled  with  water,  and  a  heavy  frame 
is  laid  upon  tlie  plants  to  keep  them  under  water.  After  fermentation,  the 
liquor  is  drawn  off  into  anotlier  tank.  It  is  then  violently  agitated  by  drcjpping 
heavy  blocks  into  it,  or  heavy  buckets  whose  bottoms  and  sides  are  perforated 
with  many  holes ;  this  separates  the  fecula,  or  grain,  as  it  is  called,  from  the 
liquid.  It  is  then  drawn  into  a  third  vat,  where  by  evaporation  it  is  freed 
from  the  liquid,  and  the  indigo  is  left ;  and  before  it  is  quite  dry  it  is  cut  into 
small  cakes,  in  which  form  it  is  sent  to  market. 

The  supply  of  indigo  is  suliject  to  many  contingencies,  which  is  the  cause 
of  great  fiuctuation  in  the  price ;  hence  it  is  frequentlv  the  basis  of  commer- 
cial speculation. 

Use.  —  The  food  value  of  the  plants  of  this  order  is  very  great,  due  to  the 
large  amount  of  nitrogen  stored  in  the  seeds.  Peas  yield  23  ])er  cent.  !Many 
species  furnish  important  dyeing  substances.  Indigo  is  a  most  important  sub- 
stance in  the  hands  of  the  dyer.  It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  fibrous  texture, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  and  imparts,  Avithout  a  mordant,  a  permanent 
and  beautiful  blue.  It  yields  to  the  diemist  a  substance  known  as  Indigotin 
(Cjr.HgNO.i),  which  is  the  coloring  matter. 

M(trts.  —  Indigo  is  sliippeil  from  most  of  the  ports  of  British  India  and  tlie 
Eastern  Archipelago.  In  ^Vmerica,  tlie  ports  are  Vera  Cruz  in  Mexico,  Beli/.e 
in  Yucatan,  Truxillo  in  Honduras,  and  ISan  Juan  in  Costa  Kica,  Kingston  in 
Jamaica,  and  the  ports  of  Now  Granada.  The  United  States  is  supplied  by 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  South  America  direct. 

ASTRAGALUS,  Tonrn.  (:\rilk  Vetch.)  Calyx  tubular,  inflated,  5- 
toothed ;  teeth  short,  nearly  equal.  Petal.s  long-clawed ;  standard 
ovate,  or  fiddle-shaped ;  wings  unequally  oblong ;  limb  sometimes 
eared  above  the  base  ;  keel  a  little  shorter  than  the  wings.  Stamens  10, 
9  connate  into  a  sheath,  cleft  above,  1  free.  Ovary  sessile;  ovules 
numerous,  in  two  series.  Style  slender,  straight  or  curved.  Stigma 
small  and  terminal.  Legume  sessile  or  stijiulate,  with  its  sutures 
turned  in  so  that  it  is  sometimes  2-celled.  Small  shrubs  or  herbs, 
variable  in  form. 
Pk.  Fl.  —  8 


98 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY 


A.  gummifer,  Labill.  (Gum  Tragacanth.)  Shrub,  2  feet  high.  Stems  short, 
naked  ;  branches  numerous  and  straggling ;  bark  reddish-gray,  slightly  rough, 
marked  with  scars  of  fallen  leaves ;  young  twigs  woolly.  Leaves  numerous, 
spreading  in  all  directions,  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  pinnate ;  rachis  hard, 
stiff,  smooth,  yelloAv,  acutely  pointed,  furnished  at  the  base  with  broad,  mem- 
branous, acute,  glabrous,  rusty,  clasping  stipules,  cut  at  the  edges  ;  leatiets  op- 
posite or  alternate,  nearly  sessile,  ver}'  small,  obovate,  acute,  entire,  glabrous, 
both  sides  grayish-green,  veined,  articulated  Avith  the  rachis,  soon  falling  off. 
Flowers  small,  sessile,  solitary  or  two  to  three  together  in  the  axils  of  the  loAver 
leaves,  each  with  a  membranous,  acute  bract  as  long  as  the  calyx.  Calyx  cut 
to  the  base  into  5  equal,  very  narrow,  acute  segments,  clothed  with  silky, 
white  hairs,  persistent.  Petals  papilionaceous,  a  little  longer  than  the  calyx, 
pale  yellow,  and  persistent;  wings  a  little  shorter  than  the  standard,  witli  a 

long  linear  claw ;  keel-petals  nearly  as 
long  as  the  wings.  Stamens  10,  upper 
one  free,  9  united  into  a  sheath,  which  is 
attached  to  the  petals  at  the  base.  Ovary 
villous ;  style  long  and  filiform ;  stigma 
minute.  Pod  small  and  kidney-shaped, 
smooth,  and  pale  brown. 

This  is  a  very  large  genus.  Most  of 
the  woody  and  spiny  species  produce  the 
tragacanth  gums,  but  this  species  is  prom- 
inent among  those  that  produce  it,  and 
the  first  that  was  accurately  described. 
The  species  A.  tragacantha,  from  which  the 
gum  takes  its  name,  does  not  yield  the 
drug. 

Geographij.  —  The  Astragalus  gummifer 
and  other  gum-bearing  species  are  sub- 
tropical plants,  and  do  not  produce  the 
gum  unless  they  grow  in  a  warm  climate. 
The  gum  which  supplies  the  market  is 
produced  in  Persia  and  the  region  soutli 
of  the  Black  Sea,  Greece  and  the  islands 
of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  also  in 
Syria. 
Etiimohgij.  —  Astragalus,  the  generic  name  of  this  plant,  is  from  the  Greek 
aarpdyaKos,  vertebra,  an  allusion  to  the  crowded  and  apparently  jointed  ap- 
pearance of  the  beans  or  seeds  in  the  pods  of  some  of  the  species  of  this  large 
genus.  Gummifer  is  from  the  lj2itva.gummis,  gum,  and  /e?-o,  bear,  hence  gum- 
bearing,  Tragacanth,  the  name  of  the  gum,  is  from  the  Greek  rpdyos,  a  goat, 
&Kavda,  beard,  hence  a  goat's  thorn,  this  name  being  an  allusion  to  the  slender 
spines  with  which  the  branchlets  of  the  A.  tragacantha  are  armed,  and  which 
bear  a  slight  resemblance  to  a  goat's  beard,  which  is  somewhat  like  a  thorn  in 
shape. 

Histori/.  —  When  or  by  whom  this  drug  was  first  used  is  not  known.  The 
ancients  were  acquainted  with  it.  Theophrastus,  who  wrote  more  than  three 
hundred  years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  mentions  it. 

Preparation.  — The  mode  of  collecting  the  gum  is  to  remove  the  earth 
from  the  crown  of  the  root,  and  then  make  wounds  in  the  bark,  from  which 
exudes  a  whitish  gummy  sap  that  hardens  in  flakes,  Avhen  it  is  removed.    This 


Astragalus  gummifer 
(Gum  Tragacanth), 


LEGUMINOS^.. 


99 


is  the  fiiip  fliiko  n^iiin  of  (•(Hiinu'rco.  Tliorc  aro  also  small  lumps  constantly 
appearing  on  the  stem  and  l)ranflies,  wiiieh  are  picked  off.  These  kinds 
are  mixed,  but  are  afterwards  separated  into  several  varieties,  according 
to  (juality,  for  the  markets  of  Europe  and  America.  The  gum  consists 
of  two  substances,  Arabin,  which  resembles  gunj  Arabic,  which  is  readily 
soluble  in  water,  and  Trafjucanthin,  which  water  causes  to  swell  but  will  not 
dissolve,  (ium  tragacauth  forms  a  mucilaginous  jelly,  with  fifty  times  its 
weight  of  water. 

^'.se. —  In  medicine,  gum  tragacauth  is  used  as  a  demulcent,  and  a  medium 
to  aid  in  suspending  licjuid  medicines.  It  is  also  used  for  a  paste  or  cement; 
for  suspending  inks  and  dyes ;  for  preparing  fabrics  for  dyeing,  and  for 
stiffening  crapes.  Shoemakers  use  it  for  a  paste  to  fasten  the  linings  in 
shoes.  It  is  used  by  confectioners  and  pharmacists  to  furnish  adhesiveness  to 
materials  of  which  lozenges  are  made. 

AKACHIS,  L.  (Peanut.)  Calyx  of  the  staminate  flower  with  a  slender 
tube  ;  limb  2-lipped,  upper  lip  -l-toothed.  Corolla  resupmate.  Stamens 
9,  united  in  a  tube. 
Pistillate  flowers 
without  calyx,  co- 
rolla, or  stamens. 
Ovary  on  a  slender 
peduncle,  whicli 
lengthens  down- 
wards, and  forces  the 
fertilized  pistil  into 
the  ground,  where 
the  legume  matures. 
Legume  oblong,  ob- 
tuse at  each  end, 
somewhat  cylindri- 
cal, 1,  2,  or  3-seeded; 
seeds  ovoid.  Flowers 
axillary,  lower  ones 
fertile,  upper  ones 
sterile. 

A.  hypogaea.  Willd. 
(Peanut,  (iroiiiid  Nut. 
Ground  Pea.  Monkey 
Xut.)  Stem  9  to  IS 
inches  long,  prostrate, 
branching,  and  liairy. 
Leaves  composed  of  2  pairs  of  leaflets,  which  are  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a 
half  long,  obovate.  entire,  nuicronate  at  the  apex,  bordered  by  a  hairy  nerve, 
aub-sessile ;  connnon  petiole  1  to  2  inches  long,  channeled  above,  and  hairy. 
Flowers  axillary,  orange-yellow,  appearing  in  July.  Fruit  ripens  in  latter 
part  of  Sei)tember.  While  the  process  of  ripening  is  going  on  the  pod  sinks 
under  ground. 

Of  this  plant  there  are  seven  species,  only  one  of  which  seems  to  be  under 
cultivation.     Of  this  one  there  are  .several  varieties,  differing  from  each  other 


Arachis  hypocba  (Peanut). 


100  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

iu  size  and  delicacy  of  flavor,  cue  very  conspicuous  for  its  large  fruit,  which  is 
about  two  inches  long  and  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  ordinary  nut  of 
commerce  is  about  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length  and  half  an  inch 
or  less  iu  diameter.  A  third  variety  is  barely  more  than  half  an  inch  in  length, 
and  correspondingly  small  iu  diameter,  but  of  A^ery  delicate  flavor. 

Geography.  —  The  peanut  is  a  subtropical  plant.  It  grows  and  fruits  in 
the  southern  United  States,  but  Avill  not  fruit  in  regions  of  severe  frost. 
It  is  an  important  crop  in  southern  and  central  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas 
and  Tennessee. 

Etymology.  —  Arachis,  the  generic  name,  is  derived  by  some  from  the  Greek 
words  o,  without,  and  poix^s,  the  backbone,  which  signifies,  iu  this  application, 
"  without  a  stem,"  which  is  incorrect ;  hence  this  derivation  is  obscure.  Others 
derive  it  from  apaxos,  a  name  applied  to  a  kind  of  vetch  by  Theophrastus. 
Hi/pogiea,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Greek  words  utto,  under,  and  yrj,  tlie 
earth,  /.  e.,  underground,  due  to  the  mode  of  ripening  the  fruit.  Peanut  is 
named  from  the  fact  that  the  plant  appears  like  the  pea  while  growing. 
Ground  Nut  and  Ground  Pea  are  thus  named  because  they  ripen  under  ground. 
Monkey  Nut  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  monkeys  are  fond  of  it. 

History.  —  De  Candolle  believes  the  peanut  to  be  an  American  plant.  It  is 
found  in  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  Peruvians.  It  was  introduced  into  Africa 
from  Brazil  by  the  Spaniards,  to  feed  the  slaves  on  the  passage  over  the  ocean, 
and  it  spread  by  commerce  into  northern  Africa,  southei-n  Europe,  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  North  America. 

Use.  —  The  peanut  is  a  very  popular  nut  among  children  and  young  people 
in  general.  It  is  used  sometimes  as  a  dessert.  It  yields  an  excellent  sweet 
oil,  Avhich  is  substituted  for  olive  oil  in  the  arts  and  for  culinary  purposes. 
In  China  the  oil  is  used  for  illuminating,  and  also  for  lubricating.  Its  roots 
are  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  liquorice. 

In  Virginia  it  is  ground  into  flour  and  used  for  making  pastry  and  biscuits, 
and  is  said  to  be  superior  to  wheat,  on  account  of  its  rich,  delicate  flavor. 

Statistics  and  Commercial  Importance.  —  The  annual  yield  of  the  peanut  in 
Virginia  is  about  2,100,000  bushels  ;  in  Tennessee,  250,000  bushels  ;  in  North 
Carolina,  13.5,000  bushels.  Besides  these,  large  quantities  are  imported  from 
South  America  and  Africa. 

LENS,  Moench.  (Lentil.)  Calyx  5-parted,  parts  narrow,  lanceolate. 
Corolla  small,  nearly  concealed  by  the  long  segments  of  the  calyx, 
varying  in  color  from  white  to  lilac,  or  pale  blue.  Style  erect.  Stigma 
smooth.  Pods  short  and  blunt,  thin,  smooth,  and  2-seeded ;  seeds  iu 
form  of  a  circular  double-convex  lens.     Annual. 

1.  L.  esculenta,  Moench.  Stem  weak,  about  10  to  18  inches  high,  branching. 
Leaves  pinnate,  composed  of  6  to  8  pairs  of  elliptical  leaflets,  the  main  leaf- 
stock  terminating  in  a  branched  tendril ;  lower  leaves  without  tendrils.  Eruit  a 
short  pod,  with  1  to  2  seeds,  about  two  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  yellowish- 
brown.     Flowers  June  to  July.     Fruits  August. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  lentil,  three  of  M^hich  are  usually  under 
cultivation.     The  Lens  esculenta  is  the  most  common,  and  the  most  esteemed. 

Var.  lutea,  the  yellow  lentil,  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  with  the  French. 

Var.  Provence  is  a  large,  coarse  sort,  grown  for  stock. 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  Lens  is  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of 
the  north  temperate  zone,  Syria,  Egypt,  southern  and  central  Europe,  and 


LKOrMTXOSJF. 


101 


Iliiidnstan.  It  escapos  from  cultivation  ;v4i<l  horomos  a  troublesome  weed,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  it  was  the  plant  mentioned  in  the  parable  of  the 
Tares. 

Eti/mo/ofji/.  —  Letis,  the  generic  name,  is  the  old  Latin  name  of  the  plant,  the 
signification  of  which  is  very  obscure.  Earjilenta  is  Latin  for  "  eatable,"  hence 
eatable  Ions  or  lontil.  Lentil,  the  common  name,  is  from  the  Latin  lenticula, 
a  little  lens. 

Ilistorij.  —  When  or  where  this  food  plant  was  first  cultivated  it  is  very 
dirticult  to  determine.  It  is  believed  by  the  best  authorities  to  have  been 
grown  in  western  Asia,  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  west 
as  Italy,  in  prehistoric  times,  and  tlience  introduced  into  Kgyj>t,  after  whicli 
it  spread  over  Europe,  and  crept  eastward  into  India.  It  is  spoken  of  by 
the  ancient  writers  on  Botany,  ami  was  uo  doubt  the  material  employed  by 
Jacob  to  prepare  his  pottage 
with  which  he  ])urchased  his 
brother's  birthright.  It  is  at 
the  present  day  an  important 
food  in  Palestine.  It  is  occa- 
sionally cultivated  in  the  east- 
ern United  States,  but  is  not 
very  profitable.  It  is  to  be 
found  on  sale  in  the  Italian 
and  German  groceries  of  our 
large  cities. 

Use,  —  It  is  prepared  as  beans 
are,  boiled  with  or  without 
meat ;  it  is  also  baked  with  pork 
or  mutton,  and  is  made  into 
soups,  and  used  to  thicken  gra- 
vies. It  is  largely  used  by  the 
Arabs  in  a  parched  state,  while 
on  their  marches.  It  was  in 
early  times  the  only  food  of 
large  armies  while  on  the 
march,  l)ut  is  greatly  inferior  in 
([uality  and  delicacy  to  either 
the  pea  or  the  bean.  Its  meal 
is  sold  a-s  a  food  for  invalids 
under  the  name  "  Revalcnta." 


PISTJM,   L.      (IVa.)      Calyx  ^^i^um  sativum  (Ganlen  Pea). 

witli    leafy   scgineiit.s,    o   in 

nuiiiher,  2  upper  ones  shorter.  I'ctajs  .l,  n].iu'r  ojic  l.ioad  and  tunuMl 
I>aek.  Stamens  0  and  1.  Style  flattened  and  ridged,  velvety  on  the 
upper  edge.  Pod  oblong ;  seeds  globular,  from  5  to  10  in  a  pod. 
Annual  herl), 

1.  P.  sativum.  (Garden  TVa.)  Stem  1  to  4  feet  high,  terete,  smooth,  and 
weak,  climbing  by  tendril.-^.  Leaves  composed  of  2  to  ;}  pairs  of  elliptical, 
obtuse,  entire,  mucronate  leaflet.^,  an  inch  to  two  inches  long:  the  common 
leaf  .stalk  .'Strong,  terete,  terminating  in  a  lone:  branched  tendril.  Stipules 
large.  t)vatc,  somewhat  sagittate,  crenute,  dentate  at  tiie  base,      riuwer-stalks 


102  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

axillary,  1  to  6  inches  loug,  terminated  by  1  to  2  flowers  each.  Style  turned 
back ;  flowers  white.  Pod  an  inch  and  a  hall'  to  three  inches  long,  somewhat 
cylindrical  or  flattened.     Elowers  in  June.     Fruits  July  to  August. 

As  the  pea  is  grown  from  the  seed,  it  sports.  Gardeners,  making  use  of 
this  tendency,  have  produced  a  great  number  of  varieties,  differing  in  length 
of  stem,  size,  shape,  and  especially  in  delicacy  of  flavor  in  the  fruit. 

The  varieties  are  usually  arranged  under  the  heads  Short-stalked  and  Long- 
stalked,  and  named  from  some  real  or  imaginary  quality,  or  after  the  propagator, 
or  discoverer. 

2.  P.  arvense,  L.  (Field  Pea.)  Differs  from  the  P.  sativum  in  being  less  deli- 
cate to  the  taste.  Has  only  one  flower  on  a  flower-stalk.  Flowers  red.  Seeds 
crowded  in  the  pod,  presenting  the  form  of  short,  quadrangular  prisms.  Whole 
plant  coarser,  and  more  hardy,  enduring  heavy  frosts ;  one  variety  planted  in 
France  endures  the  hardest  frosts  of  winter,  and  fruits  the  following  sunnner. 
Raised  largely  in  Europe  for  feed  for  cattle  and  horses. 

Geography.  —  The  habitat  of  the  pea  is  from  the  middle  of  tlie  tenij>erate 
zones  to  the  edges  of  the  tropics.  It  fruits  well  throughout  central  and  south- 
ern Europe,  Egypt,  Syria,  Japan,  India,  China,  and  Cochin  China ;  but  no- 
where is  it  more  productive  and  more  largely  cultivated  than  in  southern 
Japan,  where  it  constitutes  a  very  important  article  of  food  and  of  internal 
commerce. 

Etipnologij.  —  Pisinn,  the  generic  name,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
piso,  beat,  pound,  or  bruise,  due  either  to  the  means  employed  to  separate 
the  seeds  from  the  pods,  or  to  grind  them  into  flour.  Arvense,  the  specific 
name,  is  from  the  Latin,  signifying  "  field,"  and  sativum  from  the  Latin,  sow, 
or  plant.  Pea,  the  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  piso,  grind,  or 
bruise. 

History.  —  The  lionie  of  the  Pisum  arvense  is  not  ])Ositively  known.  It  is 
found  without  cultivation  in  Italy.  The  P.  sativum  is  not  known  at  present 
to  be  wild  anywhere,  hence  the  place  Avhere  it  originated  is  difficult  to 
discover.  It  has  been  claimed  to  be  a  variety  of  P.  ar\ense,  but  its  botanical 
characteristics  are  .so  distinct  and  constant  as  to  throw  that  hypothesis  into 
great  doubt. 

There  are  reasons  to  believe  that  it  was  carried  into  Europe  by  the 
Aryans,  at  a  remote  period  of  history  ;  and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
indigenous  in  western  Asia,  along  the  foothills  of  the  Caucasus,  towards 
Syria,  and  southeastward  to  Persia.  It  was  brought  to  North  America  by 
European  colonists,  and  is  grown  in  the  kitchen  and  market  garden,  and  in 
many  regions  in  the  field. 

Cidtivation. — The  pea  flourishes  in  a  light,  rich  soil,  and  yields  an  abun- 
dant harvest  to  generous  cultivation.  The  garden  mode  of  cultivation  is 
usually  in  drills  si.\  to  eight  inches  apart  (called  double  rows),  with  a  space 
of  three  feet,  and  another  double  row.  In  the  field  it  is  either  sown  in  drills 
and  worked  with  a  horse-hoe  or  a  plough,  or  sown  broadcast  like  the  oat. 
Among  the  jjeasantry  of  Scotland,  England,  and  the  Isle  of  Man  the  P.  arvense 
is  an  important  field  crop,  furnishing  food  for  themselves  and  their  domestic 
animals. 

Use. — The  pea  is  plucked  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  when  it  is  in  the  milky 
state ;  it  is  then  shelled,  and  boiled  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  to  preserve 
the  delicate  flavor,  and  served  plain  or  with  gravies ;  it  is  also  cooked  with  a 
smaU  quantity  of  salt  meat.     When  ripe,  it  is  used  for  soup,  or  ground  into 


LEGUMINOS^:. 


103 


flour  to  tliickeu  gravies  uuci  souj)S ;  it  is  also 
horses.  It  constitutes  a  \ery  iiiiiiortanl  artitU 
kitchou  aud  market  warden. 


ground  aud  fed  to  cattle  aud 
of  food,  aud  is  fouud  iu  every 


PHASEOLUS,  L.  (Bean.)  Calyx  with  2  bracts  at  the  base,  bell- 
shaped,  somewhat  "J-lipped,  upper  lip  2-parted,  lower  one  3-parted. 
Keel  of  the  corolla  beaked,  and,  together  with  the  stamens  and  style, 
spirally  twisted.  I^egume,  or  pod,  linear  curved,  flattened,  or  some- 
what cylindrical;  many-seeded;  seeds  kidney -shaped.  Annual 
herb. 


1 .  P.  vulgaris,  Savi.  (Pole  Beau,  Kiduey  Beau,  Haricot,  String  Bean.)  Steii 
4  to  10  feet  long,  sleuder,  voluble,  aud  twiuiug  always  against  the  suu,  oj 
towards    the    west    or 

southwest.  J. eaves  tri- 
foliate, or  a  pair  ot  leaf- 
lets aud  a  tenniual  one, 
couiuiou  petiole  1  to  6 
inches  long.  Flowers 
white,  iu  racemes,  ou 
stout  peduncles,  1  to  4 
inches  long.  Pod  3  to 
6  iuches  long ;  seeds 
more  or  less  kidney- 
shaped,  whitish,  duU- 
yellow,  or  mottled 

"N'ar.  nanus,  L.  (Bush 
Bean)  is  a  dwarf, 
with  a  short,  erect, 
branching  stem  8  to  15 
iuches  high.  Leaflets 
sharp-pointed,  aud 
bracts  larger  than  iu 
the  above  ;  otherwise 
like  P.  vulgaris. 

2.  P.  lunatus,  L. 
(Lima  Beau.)  Stem  as 
iu  P.  vulgaris,  except 
longer  and  disjmsed  to 
branch  more ;  leaflets 
larger,  oblique  or  tri- 
angular, 2  to  4  inclies 
long,    common    petitde 

2  to  6  inches  long,  racemes  loose.  ])edicels  short.  Flowers  greenish-white, 
smaller  bracts  shnrter  than  the  calyx.  Pods  2  to  :i  iuches  long,  an  iuch  wide, 
curved  or  in()on-sha|)ed.  Seeds  !-•;.  large,  flat,  greenish,  or  white.  Flowers 
in  July;  fruits  i?i  August  to  Sejjteiidter,  remauiiug  till  fro.st  appears. 

Species. — The  abi)ve  are  the  species  which  have  given  ri.se  to  all  the  forms 
now  under  cultivation.  In  the  south  of  North  America.  Mexico,  and  the  Wc't 
India  i.slauds,  a  small  l.I;i(k  l)ean.  called  turtle  .st.u|.  l.can.  is  largely  cultivated, 
especially  by  tliu  S|(ilui^ll  Americaus. 


Phasrolus  vulgaris  (String  Bean). 


104 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Phaseolus  nanus  (Bush  Bean). 


(The  beans  of  a  different  species,  Vicia  faba,  L.,  otherwise  called  Faha 
sativa,  are  not  flattened,  and  are  smaller  than  the  above.  They  are  often 
given  to  horses.) 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  bean  is  very  wide,  including  the  tropics  and 

the   temperate   zones   to 
^^  *^^®   "^^^^^   parallels,    and 

'^'px^  ^^^^    beyond     in    some 

N  ">  .-^r^afsek  localities. 

Etymology.  —  Phaseo- 
lus, the  generic  name  is 
from  the  Latin  phaselus, 
a  little  ship,  due  to  the 
shape  of  the  flower. 
Vulgaris,  from  the  Latin, 
means  common  or  usual. 
Nanus,  from  the  Latiu, 
signifies  small  or  dwarf. 
Lunatus,  Latin,  indicates 
that  the  pod  is  in  the 
shape  of  a  new  moon. 
Bean,  the  common  name, 
comes  to  us  from  the  old 
middle  English,  and  is 
supposed  to  signify  good, 
i.  e.,  good  food,  or  good  for  food.  Bush  Bean  is  named  from  the  fact  that 
the  plant  appears  in  the  shape  of  a  little  bush.  Pole  Bean  is  named  from 
the  circumstance  of  planting  poles  in  the  hills  with  the  seed  for  the  stems 
to  climb  upon.  Kidney  Bean 
takes  its  name  from  the  kidney- 
shaped  seeds.  Lima  is  supposed 
to  be  named  from  the  fact  that 
this  species  was  found  near  the 
city  of  that  name. 

History.  —  The  bean  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  native  of  India  and 
Western  Asia,  and  to  have  thence 
Avorked  its  way  into  southern 
Europe  by  commerce  and  travel ; 
but  recent  inquiries  have  dis- 
turbed this  belief.  De  Candolle, 
who  is  the  best  authority  on  the 
.'subject,  thinks  that  the  Phaseolus 
vulgaris,  and  P.  lunatus  are  in- 
digenous to  South  and  Central 
America,  and  that  the  bean  was 
carried  thence  to  southern  Europe 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  to  western 
Africa  by  Spanish  slave-traders. 
To  reconcile  these  statements 
with    the    accounts    of    ancient 

writers,  we  must  conclude  that  the  beans  of  the  ancients  were  varieties  of 
other  species,  or  different  genera,  of  the  Pulse  family. 


<^ 


Phaseolus  lunatus  (Lima  Bean). 


LEGUMINOSiR.  105 

Cultivation.  — Tho  hoan  fffows  so  oasily  in  almost  ovory  varioty  of  soil  that 
ncarlv  everv  locality  produces  sufficient  for  liomc  consnnii.tion.  Hence,  though 
it  has  heconie  oue  of  the  most  imi)ortaut  tal)le  vegetables,  it  has  little  more  than 

a  local  sale.  ,         ,  •     ,    n     .1 

It  is  i)lanted  iu  hills  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  a]jart,  or  m  drills   three 

feet  apart.  .  ^      ^-  1 

Use.  — The  bean,  in  its  numerous  forms,  constitutes  a  very  nni><.rtant  article 
of  food  The  ripened  seeds  are  boiled,  and  served  plain  or  made  into  soups. 
A  flour  is  also  produced  from  the  ground  seeds,  and  employed  to  thicken 
cravies  and  soups.  In  New  England,  baked  beans  form  a  favorite  dish. 
The  green  pods  of  the  P.  vulgaris,  when  the  seeds  are  about  half-ripened,  are 
cut  into  half-inch  pieces,  and  boiled,  either  with  or  without  salt  meat,  and 
served  as  a  vegetable.  Beans  are  largely  used  at  sea  and  in  the  army,  for 
rations  for  the  sailors  and  soldiers,  and  they  are  believed  to  afford  more  nutri- 
tive material  than  any  other  substance  of  the  same  bulk. 

GLYCYRRHIZA,  L.  (Liquorice.)  The  description  of  Astragalus 
applies  to  Glycyrrhiza,  except  that  in  the  latter  the  anther-cells  are 
united,  and  the  legume  is  continuous  internally. 

G.  glabra.  3  to  4  feet  high.  Leaves  pinnate,  4  to  5  pairs,  and  a  ter- 
minal one  ;  leaflets  ovate.     Flowers  axillary,  in  racemes,  whitish-violet. 

G'^o.^ra;)^.  — The  liquorice  is  native  to  Italy  and  southern  Europe  ;  it  also 
growsin  the  south  of  England,  and  is  cultivated  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Etymology/  and  Hisfory.- Glyryrrhiza,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek 
yXvKis,  sweet,  ^t'C«.  root,  sn-eetroof,  due  to  the  well-known  sweet  taste  of  the 
liquorice.     It  wa.s  groAvn  in  England  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

Use  —Its  medicinal  qualities  are  demulcent  and  emollient.  It  is  admin- 
istered in  catarrh  and  other  irritations  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  for 
sore  throat.  It  is  largelv  used  to  sweeten  tobacco.  Brewers  also  use  it  to  give 
body  and  to  impart  a  sweet  taste  to  porter  and  to  Scotch  ale.  It  is  also 
mixed  with  purgatives,  under  the  name  of  liquorice-powders,  to  disgui.se  the 
taste  of  other  drugs,  as  senna,  etc. 

HJEMATOXYLON,  L.  (Logwood.)  Calyx  cup-shaped,  heniisplicrical. 
Sepals  5,  nearly  equal,  imbricated :  corolla  i^ipilionaceous.  Stamens  10. 
.5  shorter.  Ovary  inserted  in  the  liollow  receptacle,  free,  short,  stipi- 
tate,  nsnally  2-o^itled.  Pods  furnished  with  lance-shaped,  flattened, 
loaf-like  hoans  or  seeds,  1-2  in  a  pod.     Small  tree. 

H.  Campechianum.  L.'  (Logwood.)  Stem  20  to  .30  feet  in  height,  and  12 
to  18  inches  in  diameter  ;  crooked,  much-l)ranched,  branchlets  armed  with  shar]) 
spines;  .sometimes  appears  as  a  shrub  forming  dense  thorny  thickets.  Bark 
dark  and  rough.  Leaves  i)innate.  with  4  or  .^)  pairs  of  irregular  obcordate 
leaflets.  Flowers  yellow,  in  terminal  spikes.  Pods  long,  double-valved  ;  seeds 
oblong,  kidney-shaped,  flattened. 

The  only  species  of  tlie  genus. 

Geography.  — Tho  logwood-tree  is  native  in  all  parts  of  the  damp  forest!* 
of  Central  America,  being  most  abundant  on  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and 
along  the  low-wooded  shores  of  Guatemala  and  Hon.lnras;  but  it  grows 
well'^along  the  low  banks  of  streams  ami  damp  grounds  of  the  Isthmus  of 


106 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Panama  and  the  West  Indies.     It  has  been  planted  by  the  British  in  Burmah, 
where  it  grows  to  perfection. 

Etymology.  —  Hcematoxylon  is  from  the  Greek  words  aXfxa,  blood,  and  ^v\ov, 
wood,  signifying  blood-wood,  on  account  of  its  red  culor.  Campechianum  is 
the  name  of  the  region  where  it  was  first  obtained.  Logwood,  the  common 
name,  is  due  to  the  form  in  which  it  is  brought  to  market,  i.  e.,  in  sliort  logs, 
four  feet  long  and  six  inches  in  diameter.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  called 
blockwood.     On  the  continent  of  Europe  it  is  called  Campeachy  icuod. 

History.  —  It  grows  and  thrives  best  in  damp  ground.  Though  a  quick 
grower,  the  wood  is  of  a  fine,  hard  texture.  It  Avas  known  as  a  dye-wood  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  dyers  of  that  day  prepared  beautiful  colors  from  this  wood,  but  its 
chemistry  not  being  understood,  they  were  unable  to  fix  them ;  hence  its  use 

was  forbidden  by  a  law,  which  was 
rigorously  enforced.  After  about  a 
hundred  years  the  act  was  repealed  or 
made  void  by  the  passage  of  another, 
in  1661,  Avhich  read  as  follows:  "The 
ingenious  industry  of  the  times  hath 
taught  the  dyers  of  England  the  art 
of  fixing  colors  made  of  logwood,  so 
that  by  experience  they  are  found  as 
lasting  and  serviceable  as  the  color 
made  by  any  other  sort  of  dye-wood." 
And  logwood  from  that  time  became 
a  popular  dye.  In  1675  the  demand 
for  the  wood  developed  a  great  in- 
dustry in  cutting,  preparing,  shipping, 
and  freighting  the  wood.  The  Span- 
iards interfered  with  the  English,  who 
had  established  a  colony  of  choppers 
on  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Cam- 
peachy.  The  English  thereupon  made 
plantations  in  Jamaica,  but  the  wood 
produced  did  not  yield  the  dye  of  the 
wood  grown  in  its  native  swamps. 
When  the  tree  is  10  years  old  it  is  about  20  feet  high  and  10  inches  in 
diameter;  it  is  then  felled,  the  sap-wood  chipped  off,  cut  into  pieces  3  to  4 
feet  in  length,  and  shipped  to  Great  Britain  or  the  United  States.  The 
best  wood  is  from  Honduras,  the  next  best  from  St.  Domingo,  and  the  third 
class  from  Jamaica. 

Chemistry.  — A  blood-red  crystalline  substance  is  dispersed  through  the 
wood,  and  this  when  extracted  gives  the  violet  dye.  It  yields  to  the  chemist 
a  substance  indicated  by  the  following  formula :  C3.2II14O1..  +  2  HO.  This 
A\  hen  isolated  appears  in  yellow  crystals,  and  has  the  taste  of  liquorice,  and 
was  named  Hcematoxylon  by  Chevreuil,  a  professor  of  chemistry  in  Paris,  who 
obtained  it.  It  is  not  itself  a  dye ;  but  when  united  with  certain  alkaline 
bases,  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  it  produces  beautiful  red,  purple, 
aad  blue  colors. 

Use.  — It  was  first  used  in  1646.  Its  medicinal  properties  seem  to  be  a 
mild  astringent  and  tonic,  and  it  is  administered  in  the  form  of  extract  or  de- 
coction for  infantile  cholera,  chronic  diarrhoea,  and  chronic  dysentery. 


HCEMATOXYLON    CaMPECHIANUM    (LogWOOd). 


lkgl:min()S7p:. 


10' 


Its  m«)st  important  use  is  as  an  ingredient  in  the  production  of  dyes. 

As  a  liedgiuj,'-plant  it  is  highly  esteemed  ;  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth, 
its  crooked  habit  of  growth,  and  its  strong  si)iues,  it  is  one  of  the  best-known 
jdants  for  fencing  ])nrposes. 

It  makes  excellent  fuel,  anil  is  very  liartl  and  heavy. 

Statistics.  — Ahoixt  64,000  tons  are  annually  taken  into  (ireat  Britain,  and 
nearly  as  much  into  the  United  States. 

Marts.  — The  priucij^al  jjorts  to  which  logwood  is  taken  are:  London,  m 
Great  uiitain  ;  ^'ersailles,  in  Frauce;  aud  New  York,  in  the  United  States. 

5,  barely  united  at   base.     Petab 


is  o, 


CASSIA,  L.     (Senna.)     Sepals 
unequal,  spreading.     Stamens  5  to  10,  unequal  apart,  Irequently  im- 
perfect.    Anthers  opening  by  two  chinks  at  the  apex.     Pod  many- 
Flowers  vellow. 


>eeded,  often  with  cross  partitions. 
1, 


Leaves  pinnate. 

Leaves  alternate,  ])iu- 
oval-lauceolate,  acute, 


C.  acutifolia,  Delile.  Stem  woody,  3  feet  high, 
nate,  stipulate  ;  leaHets  in  fron;  4  to  6  pairs,  sessile 
oblique  at  base,  nerved,  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  long.  Flowers  yellow,  in  axillary  spikes. 
Fruit  a  ])od  or  legume,  an  inch  long,  half  an 
inch  broad,  flat,  elliptical,  obtuse,  membranous, 
aud  smooth,  divided  into  6  or  7  cells,  each  con- 
taining 1  seed. 

2.  C.  obovata,  DC.  Like  the  above,  except 
that  it  is  18  inches  in  heiglit.  Leaf  with  5  to 
7  pairs  of  leaflets,  obovate  and  mucronate. 
Legume  flat,  kidney-shaped,  and  clothed  with 
a  short  inconspicuous  down. 

3.  C.  angustifolia,  Wahl.  Stem  erect,  smooth. 
Leaflets  in  4  to  8  pairs,  sessile,  lanceolate,  ob- 
scurely mucronate,  smooth,  downy  beneath, 
with  a  wavy  line  along  the  under  side  of  mar- 
gin, one  to  one  and  a  quarter  inches  long. 
Legume  oblong,  abrupt  at  base,  round  at  ajjex, 
an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  half  an  inch  broad. 
Annual. 

4.  C.  Marilandica,  L.    Stem  3  to  5  feet  high. 

Leaflets  in  8  to  10  jiairs.  an  inch  and  a  lialf  long  and  half  an  inch  wide, 
oblong,  blunt,  and  nmcroiuite  ;  the  main  petiole  has  a  club-shaped  gland  at 
its  base.  Flowers  in  short  axillary  racemes  on  the  ui)per  ])art  of  sten),  yellow, 
fading  to  white.  Anthers  black,  10  in  number,  and  une(|ual.  Tods  Imnging, 
3  inches  long,  flat,  linear,  hairy  at  flrst.  stipules  falling  off. 

5.  C.  fistula,  L.  Large  tree,  branching  regularly,  and  forming  a  symmetrical 
head  ;  wood  hard  and  heavy.  Leaves  of  .5  to  0  ])airs  of  ojjposite  leaflets  ;  leaf- 
lets 3  to  5  inches  long,  ovate,  pointed,  undulate,  smooth,  on  short  ])etioles. 
Pod  a  foot  long,  an  inch  thick,  cylindrical,  woody,  dark-brown,  hanging. 
When  the  plant  is  disturbed  by  the  wind  the  ]iods  strike  together  and  i)ro- 
duce  a  sound  which  may  l)e  heard  at  a  considerable  distance. 
Upper  Egypt. 

Species.  — T\wix'  are  many  sjjecies  of  the  Cassia,  but  those  already  described 
are  the  ones  from  which  the  commercial  product;^ 
the  American  trade. 


Cassia  Marilandica  (Seuua). 


Native  in 


are  obtained  that  enter  into 


108  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY, 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  most  of  the  species  of  Cassia 
which  enter  into  the  materia  medica  is  tropical  and  subtropical,  extending 
quite  around  the  globe. 

Etymologij.  —  The  common  name  Senna  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  name 
Sana.  The  generic  name  is  said  to  have  been  traced  back  to  the  Hebrew 
word  Ketzioth,  signifying  "to  cut;"  but  the  application  of  this  signification 
is  not  apparent.  The  specific  names  are  Latin,  with  one  exception,  Marilan- 
dica,  which  signifies  "Maryland,"  this  being  the  State  from  which  speci- 
mens of  the  plant  were  first  sent  to  Europe.  Acutifolia,  Latin,  acute-  or 
sharp-leaved  Obovata,  obovate-leaved.  Angustifolia ,  narrow-leaved.  Fistula, 
a  tube-shaped  fruit. 

History.  —  Senna  was  introduced  into  medical  practice  in  the  tenth  century 
by  the  Arabic  physician,  Serapion. 

The  most  valuable  is  the  Alexandrian  senna.  It  is  a  mixture  of  the  leaves 
and  pods  of  C.  acutifolia  and  C.  obovata  and  the  leaves  of  Cynanchum  oleaefo- 
lium ;  the  mixture  is  prepared  at  Boulac,  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  put  up  in  bales 
and  sent  to  Alexandria. 

The  East  India  senna  is  obtained  from  C.  angustifolia,  in  southeastern 
Arabia,  where  it  grows  without  cultivation.  The  leaves  and  pods  are  gath- 
ered and  sent  to  Bombay,  whence  it  reaches  Europe. 

Tinnevelly  senna  is  obtained  from  C.  angustifolia,  which  was  introduced 
into  India  from  Arabia,  and  is  now  largely  cultivated  in  the  vicinity  of  Tin- 
nevelly. The  imported  article  consists  of  unbroken  leaflets,  of  a  fine  dark- 
green  color. 

The  American  senna  is  from  the  C.  Marilandica,  and  is  found  throughout 
the  Middle  and  Southern  United  States.  It  is  collected  in  a  Avild  state,  dried 
in  the  shade,  and  the  leaflets  and  pods  are  sent  to  market. 

Use.  —  The  active  medicinal  principle  of  senna  has  thus  far  defied  the 
skill  of  the  chemist.  By  experience  the  drug  is  found  to  he  a  safe  and 
efficient,  but  not  a  violent  purgative.  It  is  usually  administered  in  combina- 
tion with  salts  of  magnesia.  It  is  used  for  alterative  purposes  in  the  form  of 
confections ,  the  pulverized  leaves,  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  of  C.  fistula,  with 
fruits  and  spices,  are  made  into  a  mass,  and  are  prepared  in  the  form  of 
lozenges. 

CERATONIA,  L.     (Carob  Tree.) 

C.  Siliqua  Found  in  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  bearing  large  pods,  which 
are  fed  to  cattle,  and  believed  to  be  the  plant  referred  to  in  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  Pods  have  been  found  in  Egyptian 
monuments,  with  a  piece  of  wood,  which  microscopic  examination  proved  to 
be  from  this  tree. 

DALBERGIA,  L.  (Blackwood.)  Calyx  unequally  5-toothed ;  vexilluui 
obovate  or  orbiculate  ;  wings  oblong ;  keel  blunt.  Stamens  10  or  9, 
bifid-didymous.  Ovary  stipitate ;  ovules  2  or  more.  Pod  oblong  linear, 
compressed,  thin,  wingless.  Leaves  unequally  pinnate  or  1-leaved. 
Trees  and  vines. 

1.  D.  nigra,  Allemo.  (Fine  Eosewood.)  Trunk  .50  to  70  feet  high,  branched 
into  a  symmetrical  head.  Leaves  unequally  pinnate,  or  solitary.  Flowers 
papilionaceous,  white.  Pods  flat,  1-2-seeded.  Wood  brown,  and  beautifully 
mottled  with  yellow  spots  and  veins. 


LEGUMINOSJE.  109 

-2.  D.  latifolia,  Hox.  (Iiuliau  l^osewood.)  Trunk  80  feet  iu  height,  heauti- 
I'uUy  braufhed.  Leaves  pinuate,  with  few  leatiets.  Pods  Hat,  lew-seeded. 
Wood  hard,  heavy,  close-grained,  takes  a  hue  ])()lish,  color  browu  to  Itlack, 
streaked  witli  rich  yellowish  veins. 

Note.  —  The  name  Rosewood  is  ajipliod  to  several  different  trees.  There 
is  some  coufusiou  with  regard  to  tlie  genera  that  produce  all  tlie  woods  known 
by  that  name.  The  Dalbergia  nigra,  and  1).  latifolia  are  known  to  be 
trees  from  which  rosewood  is  produced,  and  D.  nigra  is  the  tree  whose  wood 
discharges  an  odor  of  roses. 

Geoyraphy.  —  Dalbergia  nigra  is  found  native  in 
Brazil,  botli  tropical  and  subtropical.  The  1).  latifolia 
is  indigenous  to  southern  Asia.  Thougli  tropical,  it 
extends  north  to  the  edge  of  the  north  temperate  zone, 
and  is  extra  tropical  in  regions  of  no  frost. 

Eti/molo(/i/.  —  Dalbergia  was  the  name  given  to  this 
genus  to  compliment  Nicholas  Dalberg,  a  Swedish 
botanist  of  distinction.  Nigra,  Latin,  signifying  black, 
due  to  the  color  of  the  wood.     Latifolia,  Latin,  broad-  Dalbergia  nigra 

leaved,  from  latus,  broad,  and  foliian,  a  leaf.     Roseirood,  (Rosewood), 

the  popular  name  is  due  to  the  odor  given  off  by  the 

wood  when  under  the  saw  and  plane  of  the  workman.  The  names,  Kimjicvod, 
Blackwood ,  are  also  applied  to  all  the  woods  known  as  Kosewoods.  The 
Dalbergia  is  known  among  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  under  the  name  Jara- 
randa,  the  signification  of  which  is  unknown. 

Use.  —  It  is  brought  to  market  in  logs  or  planks.  The  logs  are  usually 
split  in  half,  in  order  to  make  sure  that  tliey  are  sound. 

The  wood  is  highly  prized  for  musical  wind-instruments,  polishiug-sticks 
for  slioemakers,  piano-cases,  chairs,  sofas,  bedsteads,  bureaus,  and  for  veneering 
all  sorts  of  cabinet  work. 

CAESALPINIA.     (Brazil  Wood.) 

C.  crista,  L.,  and  C.  Braziliensis  furnish  fine  dyes  and  red  ink.  The  wood 
takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  used  for  violin-bows,  etc. 

The  name  Brazilieiisis  does  not  seem  to  come  /rom  Brazil,  for  it  was  known 
before  the  discovery  of  America.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  discovery  (»f 
the  tree  in  Brazil  may  have  given  its  name  to  tlie  country. 

TAMARINDUS,  L.  (Tainariiid.)  Calyx  funnel-shaped,  narrow,  divided 
into  4  ovate,  hmceolate,  acute  segments,  imbricated  in  the  bud.  Petals 
3,  1  posterior  and  the  other  2  lateral,  oblong,  white  or  vellowisli- 
W'hite,  with  red  veins.  Stamens  3,  filaments  long  and  free.  Anthers 
opening  lengthwise.  Ovary  stalked,  1-celled  ;  ovules  numerous. 
Style  long  and  hooked.  Fruit  pendulous,  pod-shaped,  .compressed, 
3  to  6  inches  long,  1  inch  ^Yide,  curved,  nearly  smooth,  chocolate- 
brown  ;  seeds  imbedded  in  a  firm  pulp ;  3  strong  woody  cords  ex- 
tending along  the  edge  of  the  pulp  from  base  to  apex.  Seeds  2  to 
8  in  a  ]mh]. 

T  Indica,  L.  Trunk  from  60  to  80  feet  in  height,  and  2  to  4  feet  in 
diameter;  bark  rough,  twigs  smooth  or  j»ubesi'ent.  Br.inches  long,  liorizontal. 
forming  a  very  large   head.     Leaves  alternate;  stipules  falling;  leatlets  iu 


110 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


8  to  16  pairs,  opposite,  one  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  sessile 
and  overlapping,  oblong,  blunt,  unequal  at  the  base,  thick-veined  underneath. 
This  is  the  only  species  of  the  genus  ;  but  as  it  is  propagated  from  the  seed, 
it  sports  and  produces  varieties  differing  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 
The  pods  of  the  Indian  and  African  varieties  have  more  beans  in  them  than 
those  of  America. 

Hymemea  verrucosa,  of  Madagascar,  and  H.  combaril  of  the  West  Indies, 
are  allied  to  the  Tamarindus.  H.  combaril  is  the  locust-tree  of  the  West 
Indies. 

Trachi/lobium  Hornemanntanum,  of  eastern  Africa,  is  also  an  ally  of 
Tamarindus. 

Geographic .  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  tamarind  is  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical. It  is  indigenous  to  Africa,  but  it  has-  spread  by  cultivation  to 
Arabia,  to  southern  India,  Ceylon,  Java,  the  Philippines,  northern  Australia, 
the  tropical  isles  of  the  Pacific,  the  West  India  islands,  and  to  tropical  South 
America. 

Etymology.  —  Tamarindus  is  from  the  Arabic  Tamar,  a  date,  and  Indus, 
India,  hence  Indian  date.  Indica  denotes  the  country  in  which  it  grows,  yet 
it  is  not  known  to  be  a  native  of  India.  Tamarind,  the  common  name,  is  the 
generic  name  Anglicized. 

History.  —  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  not  acquainted  with  the  tamarind,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  known  to 

the  ancient  Egyptians.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  Koran,  and 
was  well  know^n  to  Arabic 
physicians  in  the  middle  ages. 
Preparation.  —  In  the  West 
Indies  the  fruit  is  picked  when 
ripe,  packed  in  small  kegs,  and 
hot  syrup  is  poured  over  it ; 
then  the  vessels  are  closed, 
and  it  is  fit  for  the  market. 

In  Asia  the  fruit  is  packed 
in  salt,  and  a  syrup  made  from 
the  fruit  is  poured  over  it. 

In  Africa  the  pulp  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  pod  and  seed 
and  pressed   into  cakes,  then 
dried  in  the  sun. 
Use. — The   medicinal    properties  of   the   tamarind  are  laxative,  cooling, 
and  anti-febrile.     It  contains  about  one  tenth  of  its  weight  of  citric  acid,  also 
small  quantities  of  acetic,  malic,  and  tartaric  acids,  hence  its  value  in  producing 
acid  drinks,  for  which  it  is  largely  used  in  the  countries  where  it  grows. 

It  is  an  important  article  of  food  among  the  natives  of  the  hot  countries  of 
Asia  and  Afi-ica.  The  seeds  are  roasted,  and  reduced  to  flour,  of  which  cakes 
are  made ;  they  are  also  boiled.  The  Hindus  make  use  of  the  leaves,  flowers, 
bark,  and  seeds  in  the  preparation  of  healing  remedies. 

In  the  Atlantic  cities  of  the  United  States  it  is  used  as  a  preserve.  In  the 
famine  of  1878-9  the  leaves  were  used  as  food  in  the  Deccan. 

The  timber  produced  by  these  trees  is  hard  and  durable,  and  they  all 
produce  a  resinous  gum  known  as  copal,  which  when  heated  with  linseed 
oil  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  dissolves  and  forms  the  best  varnish.     The  gum 


Tamarindus  (Tamarind). 


LEGUMINOS^. 


Ill 


flows  from  wounds  lua.l.-  in  ilic  trunk  and  l.rancliPs.  It  also  flows  from  the 
roots,  and  is  found  l.v  digi,nn<,'  about  th(3  foot  ..f  thn  treo.  Much  of  this 
resiu  that  comes  to  market  is  fossil,  as  it  is  freciuently  found  where  there  are 
no  trees. 

^farts.  —  Tho.  ports  of  export  are  Aden,  in  sonthcrn  Arabia,  Alexandria, 
and  ports  of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

ACACIA,  Necker.  Flowers  regular,  perfect  or  polygamous.  Calyx 
■t-.Vtoothed.  Petals  uuited  below.  »Staniens  free  or  united  below, 
numerous,  longer  than  the  corolla.  Anthers  small.  Style  thread- 
like. Pod  sometimes  two-valved,  and  at  other  times  not  openhig  when 
ripe  ;  flattened  or  cylinilrical,  contahiing  many  flattened  seeds.  Leaves 
bi-pinnate  ;  leaflets  small ;  stipules  frequently  spinous.  Flowers  small, 
in  globular  heads  or  cylindrical  spikes,  axillary,  and  yellow.  Shrubs 
or  small  trees,  usually  armed  with  prickles  or  thorns. 

A.  Senegal,  Willd.  (Gum  Arabic.)  Stem  20  feet  high,  erect.  Branches 
irregular,  crooked,  and  twisted,  the  young  brauchlets  tiucke.ned  at  the 
nodes,  which  are  armed  with  tln-ee  hooked 
thorns.  Bark  smootli,  grayish,  or  white. 
Leaves  alternate,  or  appearing  in  bunches, 
or  fascicles,  bi-pinnate ;  rachis  slender, 
tomentose,  terminated  with  a  gland,  hav- 
ing one  also  at  the  base  ;  pinnje  opposite, 
3  to  5  pairs  ;  leaflets  opposite,  10  to  20 
pairs,  sessile  and  linear-ol)long,  rigid, 
grayish-green,  one  sixth  of  an  inch  long. 
Flowers  axillary,  sessile,  small,  in  slender, 
cylindrical,  erect  spikes.  Calyx  liell- 
shaped,  downy,  cut  into  5  acute  segments, 
reaching  half-way  down.  Corolla  campan- 
nlate,  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx,  divisions 
extending  half-way  down.  Stamens  nu- 
merous ;  filaments  slender,  erect,  3  times 
the  length  of  corolla,  yellowish,  united  at 
the  base  into  a  short  tube,  which  is  in- 
serted on  the  base  of  corolla.  Anthers 
small  and  roundish.  Ovary  on  a  sliort 
stalk,  small,  oldong.  Style  filiform, 
shorter  than  stamens  ;  stigma  terminal. 
Pod  short-.stalked,  3  to  4  inches  long,  and 

three  fourths  of  an  inch  wide,  constricted  between  the  seeds,  smooth,  ])ale, 
membranous,  witli  a  strong  marginal  ril).  No.  of  seeds  2-G  ;  funiculus  long; 
beans  roundish,  mucli  flattened.  l)rown. 

There  are  over  400  si)ecies  of  this  i^cinis.  but  the  pure  (Jum  Arabic  is  from 
the  A.  Senrgn!,  found  in  Kordofan. 

Geograpin/.  — The  geographical  di.stribution  of  the  acacia  is  very  extensive. 
It  occupies  a  broad  belt  both  sides  of  the  equator,  all  around  the  globe. 
Though  it  is  for  the  niost  part  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plant,  it  reaches 
far  into  the  temperate  zones.  Many  species  grow  in  Australia,  and  some  in 
America.  Most  of  the  species,  however,  are  found  in  tropical  Africa  and 
Asia,  and  in  the  tropical   Pacific  Islands. 


Acacia  Senegal  (Gum  Arabic). 


112  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Etymology  and  History.  —  Acacia  i&  horn  the  Greek  aKUKia,  a  name  given 
to  a  thorny  plant  by  Dioscorides,  derived  from  aK-f],  a  sharp  point.  Senegal, 
the  specific  name,  is  from  the  district  in  Africa  where  the  tree  abounds. 
Gum  Arabic,  the  popular  name,  is  due  to  the  circumstance  that  formerly  the 
gum  was  carried  from  Aden  in  Egyptian  ships  through  the  Hed  Sea  to  Egypt, 
and  thence  reshipped  to  Europe. 

At  present  none  of  the  gums  of  commerce  known  as  Gum  Arabic  are 
obtained  from  Arabia. 

The  pure  gum  used  in  medicine  is  from  Kordofan,  is  carried  down  the  Nile  to 
Egypt,  and  is  a  white  opaque  substance  Avhicli  when  pulverized  resembles  wheat 
Hour  in  color.  Tlie  several  gums  sold  for  gum  arable  are  from  other  species, 
and  are  usually  brought  to  market  mixed. 

The  gum  exudes  from  wounds  or  incisions  in  the  bark,  and  appears  in 
tears  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  small  hen's-egg.  The  different 
sorts  are  knoAvn  in  commerce  by  names  which  indicate  the  countries  wlience 
they  are  brought,  as  Mogador  gum,  North  Africa  gum,  Jedda  gum  from 
Jedda  in  Arabia,  Cape  gum  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  East  India 
gum  is  carried  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa  to  Bombay,  from  which  p(jint 
it  is  shipped  to  Europe. 

There  is  also  a  gum  sold  for  gum  arabic  -svhich  is  an  Australian  product, 
and  is  obtained  from  the  Acacia  pycnantha,  Benth.  The  beautiful  A.  dealbata 
of  Australia,  frequently  seen  in  our  green-houses,  yields  a  good  gum. 

The  Acacia  Seyal  is  the  Shittim  Avood  of  Scripture,  and  the  Acacia  Suma 
is  one  of  the  sacred  trees  used  by  the  Brahmins  to  obtain  fire  by  friction,  for 
their  altars. 

The  fine  white  gums  of  commerce  are  known  as  Turkey  gums.  The  darker, 
translucent,  reddish  gums  are  known  commercially  as  Senegal  gum. 

Use.  —  The  gum  begins  to  flow  in  the  flowering  season  early  in  December, 
and  the  liarA'est  extends  to  the  last  of  January,  during  which  time  the  har- 
vesters sul)sist  almost  entirely  upon  the  gum. 

^1.  Catechu  of  India  yields  by  decoction  a  valuable  tonic  (Catechu),  and  in 
the  hands  of  the  dyer  it  forms  the  colors  black,  brown,  green,  drab,  -diwd  fawn. 
The  decoction  is  higlily  charged  with  tannin. 

As  a  medicine,  gum  arabic  is  used  largely  as  an  emollient  and  demulcent; 
it  is  prescribed  in  stomach  difliculties,  dysentery,  and  other  bowel  disorders; 
and  is  used  in  throat  troubles,  and  for  cough  mixtures. 

In  confectionery,  it  is  mixed  with  sugar  and  formed  into  lozenges  and  gum- 
drops. 

It  is  largely  used  for  a  cement,  or  sticking  substance.  The  Egyptians  em- 
ployed it  to  suspend  their  water-colors  in  painting. 

The  commoner  qualities  are  used  for  giving  luster  to  crape,  silk,  etc.,  to 
stiffen  the  fibers  in  cloth-fiuishing,  and  in  calico-printing.  For  labels,  etc.,  it 
is  usual  to  mix  sugar  or  glycerine  with  it  to  prevent  it  from  cracking. 

The  tree  has  great  beauty,  and  is  highly  prized  in  planted  grounds  where 
it  is  able  to  endure  tlie  temperature.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  takes  a  fine 
polish.  Tlie  bark  of  many  of  the  species  is  highly  charged  with  tannin, 
and  though  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  is  not  a  favorite  for  that 
purpose,  because  it  imparts  a  stiff,  brittle  character  to  hides  during  tlie  pro- 
cess of  tanning.  These  barks,  however,  are  largely  imported  into  P^ngland, 
They  are  known  in  commerce  as  AVattle  Barks. 

A  species  of  an  allied  genus  Prosopis  (P.  juliflora,  DC),  a  native  of  Texas, 
yields  an  inferior  gum  locally  substituted  for  gum  arabic. 


ROSACEA 


113 


Order  XXII.    ROSACEA. 


Flowers  perfect,  regular,  terminal,  usually  iu  a  corymb,  cyme,  or 
umbel.  Sepals  5,  occasionally  fewer,  united  at  the  base.  Petals  5,  occa- 
sionally wanting.  Stamens  numerous,  in  several  series,  distinct  or 
cohering  together,  inserted  with  the  petals  on  the  disk  which  lines 
the  calyx-tube.  Leaves  alternate,  stipulate.  Fruit  a  pome,  drupe,  or 
akene.     Seeds  one  or  few  in  each  carpel.     Herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees. 

Number  of  genera,  71 ;  of  species,  1000. 

RUBUS,  L.  Calyx  spreading,  5-parted  ;  petals  5  in  number,  falling. 
Stamens  many,  on  the  border  of  the  disk;  ovaries  numerous,  with 
2  ovules,  1  abortive.  Akenes  pulpy,  drupe-like,  aggregated  upon  a 
succulent  receptacle.     Shrub. 

1.  R.  strigosus,  Mx.  (Wild  Red  Ra.spberry.)  Stem  3  feet  hi^rh,  l,alf  an 
inch  iu  diameter,  sparingly  or  diffusely  bnmched,  armed  witli  weak  prickles. 
Leaves  ])iuuately  3-5-leaved;  leaflets  ob- 
long-ovate, obtuse  at  the  base,  pointed  at 
the  apex,  serrate,  gashed,  teeth  unequal,  ses- 
sile and  hoary  beneath,  wrinkled.  Flowers 
white;  corolla  cup-shaped,  and  smaller  than 
the  calyx.  Fruit  hemispherical,  when  re- 
moved from  the  receptacle ;  it  is  hollow, 
and  forms  a  little  cup.  The  aroma  and 
taste  are  very  grateful.  Connnou  in 
Northern  United  States.  Flowers  in  June. 
Fruits  in  July  and  August.  Root  i)erennial. 
Stem  biennial. 

2.  R.  occidentalis,  L.  (Black  Raspberry. 
Thimble  llerry.  Black  Cap.)  Stem  3  to 
5  feet  higli,  glaucous,  recurved,  bending  to 
the  ground,  armed  with  strung  recurved 
prickles.    Leaf  3-foliate  ;  leaflets  acuminate, 

subsessile,  doubly  serrate,  tomentose,  or  white  downy  beneath.  Flowers 
axillary  and  terminal ;  corolla  smaller  than  the  calyx.  Fruit  like  the  last, 
except  that  it  is  black.  Flowers  in  May  and  June  ;  fruit  ri]iens  in  July. 
Common  where  the  last  is  found.  Dr.  (tray  says  it  flourishes  best  in  ground 
that  has  l)ccn  Inirned  over. 

3.  R.  Idaeus,  L.  (Garden  Ixaspberry.)  Stem  5  to  8  feet  high,  armed  witli 
strong  bristles  or  recurved  jtrickles.  Leaf  ])innate,  with  3  to  5  leaflets;  the 
leaflets  broad-ovate,  acuminate,  uneriually  cut  and  toothed,  hoary  undernenth  ; 
lateral  ones  sessile,  terminal  one  petioled.  Flowers  in  corymbs  or  panicle.^ ; 
petals  shorter  than  tlie  divisions  of  the  calyx,  white,  terminal.  Fruit  red,  Uke 
No.  1.  Dr.  (iray  tliinks  it  identical  witli  the  .\merii-an  sj)ecies  R.  strigosus. 
Wood  says  Dr.  Robl)ins  found  it  in  a  wild  state  in  Vermont,  also  in  Connecticut. 

R.  Idnsus  is  tlie  ])]ant  from  which  all  the  varieties  of  the  red  raspberry  have 
.sprung,  either  by  hybridizinj;  or  from  seedlings. 

The  black  cap  varieties  iiave  arisen  by  similar  means  from  the  R. 
occidentalis. 

There  are  about  150  varieties  under  culli\atiou  in  North  America. 
Tr.  Fl.  —  9 


RuBus  (Raspberry). 


114 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Geographij.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Rubus  is  very  broad.  It 
grows  well  in  the  temperate  zone,  between  30°  and  50°  latitude  in  North 
America,  and  the  belt  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  oceans.  In 
Europe  it  is  found  as  far  north  as  the  60th  parallel,  and  extends  to  the  northern 
parts  of  Africa,  and  from  Asia  Minor  west  to  the  British  islands,  and  east- 
ward into  India.  It  is  said  to  be  found  in  Japan,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  carried  there  by  Europeans. 

Etymology. — Rubus,  the  generic  name  of  the  raspberry,  is  derived  from 
the  Celtic  word  rub,  signifying  red,  Latin  ruber.     The  specific  name  strigosus 

is  a  Latin  word,  which  means  scraggy, 
or  meager,  relating  to  the  small  size  of 
the  plant.  The  specific  name  occidentah's 
means  western.  The  name  Idceus,  is 
from  Mount  Ida,  where  it  is  believed  this 
species  had  its  origin.  Raspberry  comes 
from  the  Italian  word  raspo,  rough,  on 
account  of  the  roughness  of  the  stem  and 
leaves ;  it  is  also  called  raspis  in  Scotland 
for  the  same  reason. 

The  IdcEus  is  the  cultivated  plant  in 
Europe,  and  was  brought  to  North 
America  by  European  colonists. 

History.  —  There  is  no  record  to  show 
when  the  raspberry  was  first  brought 
under  cultivation  or  when  it  was  carried 
into  Europe,  but  its  value  as  a  food-plant 
must  have  drawn  attention  to  it  at  a  very 
early  period  of  man's  civilization.  The 
seed  of  the  raspberry  is  said  to  have  been 
found  in  the  hands  of  mummies,  which 
points  to  great  antiquity  in  its  use. 

Use.  —  The  raspberry  is  a  favorite  des- 
sert fruit.  It  has  a  deliglitful  perfume, 
and  a  subacid  taste  agreeable  to  most 
palates. 

It  ripens  just  at  the  end  of  the  straw- 
berry period,  and  thus  prolongs  the  early 
fruit  season.  It  is  used  for  jams,  rasp- 
berry vinegar  or  wine,  for  syrup  to  flavor 
soda  water  and  other  drinks.  It  is  largely 
canned  and  dried.  A  wine  made  from  it 
is  distilled  into  Raspberry  Brandy. 

Marts.  —  The  ease  with  which  it  is  cul- 
tivated enables  gardeners  in  the  ^'icinit^-  of  our  large  cities  to  supply  the 
market.  It  is  so  perishable  that  it  cannot  be  shipped  to  long  distances,  hence 
the  markets  must  be  local. 

4.  K.  villosus.  Ait.  (High  Blackberry.)  Stem  from  3  to  8  feet  high,  curved, 
from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter ;  young  branches,  and  villous  pedun- 
cles, grooved,  and  armed  with  strong  curved  prickles.  Root  creeping.  Leaves 
3-foliate,  or  pedately  5-foliate  ;  stipules  subulate ;  leaflets  ovate  or  oblong- 
lanceolate,  unequally  serrate,  villous  beneath,  petioles  and  midrib  aculeate. 
Flowers  in  a  raceme,  abundant,  white ;    sepals  linear  at  their  extremities  j 


Rubus  strigosus  (Wild  Red  Raspberry). 


ROSACEiE. 


115 


petals  longer  tlian  the  sepjils,  ohovate,  spreading.  Fruit  ovoid-oblung  or 
cylindrical,  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  and  half  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, changing  from  green  to  red,  and  black  when  ripe.  Flowers  in  May  ; 
fruits  in  July. 

Var.  frondosus,  (iray.  Leaflets  iucisely  toothed,  smooth.  Fhjwers  more 
corymboscd,  with  leafy  bracts,  and  roundish  petals. 

Var.  humifusus,  (Jray.    8teni  trailing,  and  smaller  j^oduncles  ;  few-flowered. 

5.  R.  fruticosus.  (High  Blackberry.)  A  plant  common  in  the  British  Isles. 
But  little  attention  is  ])aid  to  it,  and  it  has  not  been  brought  under  cultivation. 

Varieties.  —  There  are  some  20  varieties  now  under  cultivati»jn,  differing 
from  each  other  as  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  hardiness  of  the  plant. 

The  varieties  of  the  blackberry  grown  in  our  gardens,  and  from  which  our 
markets  are  su])]die(l,  are  seedlings  from  the  K.  villosus,  or  high  blackberry, 
found  in  our  fields  and  fence- 
rows  all  over  the  Xorthern  and 
Middle  States.  The  Kittatinny 
was  found  in  the  Kittatinny 
Mountains  in  Warren  County, 
New  Jersey,  growing  without 
cultivation.  The  New  Kochelle 
blackberry  was  found  hy  Mr. 
Lewis  Secor  by  the  roadside  in 
the  town  of  New  Kochelle,  West- 
chester County,  New  York,  and 
was  called  Secor's  Mammoth. 
Mr.  Lawton,  of  New  l^ochelle, 
took  great  interest  in  it,  and 
propagated  it  in  his  nursery  at 
New  Rochelle.  The  names  Law- 
ton  and  New  Kochelle  ])lackl)erry 
are  both  due  to  this  circumstance. 

GeograpJii/  —  The    Kubus  vil- 
losus or  high  blackberry  is  an  American  plant,  and  grows  freely  all  over  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States,  in  fence-rows,  pastures,  and  edges  of  woods  and 
old  fields. 

Eti/moloffi/.  —  The  specific  name  villosus  comes  from  the  Latin  word  villus, 
wool,  and  signifies  wt)olly,  a  name  apjdied  to  this  plant  because  it  is  clothed 
with  weak,  long  hairs.  The  common  name  black-berri/  arises  from  the  color  of 
the  fruit  when  ripe. 

History.  —  There  is  hut  little  to  be  said  of  tlie  history  of  the  blackberry. 
The  villosus,  the  parent  of  all  the  cultivated  varieties,  is  an  American  plant, 
and  has  been  used  as  a  food-plant  since  the  settlement  of  the  country,  but  has 
only  recently  become  an  article  of  commerce.  Of  late  years  it  has  engaged  tlie 
attention  of  fruit  growers  to  a  great  extent,  and  many  fine  varieties  have  been 
produced  by  liyl)ridizing  and  from  seedlings. 

Use. —  It  is  a  favorite  dessert  fruit,  eaten  with  sugar  or  milk  without  ct)ok- 
ing;  it  is  preserved  in  sugar  and  brandy,  and  is  canned;  it  is  also  prepareii 
as  a  jam.  A  syrup  made  from  it  is  used  as  a  remedy  in  chronic  stomach  and 
bowel  difficulties,  because  of  tlie  astringent  ])ro])erties  it  contains. 

^farts.  —  On  account  of  the  perishalde  character  of  this  fruit  the  markets 
must  be  local. 


RcBUs  VILLOSUS  (High  Blackberry). 


116 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


FRAGARIA,  (Strawberry.)  Tourn.  Calyx  concave,  deeply  cleft; 
sepals  or  divisions  5  in  number,  with  5  alternate  bractletsj  petals 
obcordate,  white  and  large ;  stamens  numerous ;  styles  numerous ; 
akenes  naked,  on  the  surface  of  a  subgiobular,  heart-shaped,  or 
irregular  pulpy  eatable  receptacle.     Perennial  stemless  herb. 

1.  F.  Virginiana,  Duchesne.  (American  Strawberry.)  Without  stem. 
Leaves  and  flower-stalks  pubescent ;  leaves  on  long  radical  petioles,  composed 
of  3  dentate  leaflets,  lateral  ones  obhque,  nearly  sessile ;  flower-stalks  less  hairy 

than  the  petioles.  Flowers  in  a 
cyme;  calyx  erect.  Flowers  in 
April ;  fruits  in  May,  June,  and 
July. 

2.  F.  vesca,  L.  (English 
Strawberry.)  Calyx  spreading 
or  reflexed.  Akenes  superficial, 
not  imbedded  in  pits  in  the  re- 
ceptacle. Otherwise  as  in  F. 
Virginiana. 

By  propagating  from  seeds 
and  by  hybridizing,  many  varie- 
ties have  been  produced.  Ameri- 
can nurserymen  catalogue  about 
400. 

Geography.  —  The  geographi- 
cal range  of  the  strawberry  is 
very  wide ;  in  fact,  it  extends 
annind  the  globe.  Captain  Cook 
speaks  of  the  fine  strawberries 
he  found  in  great  profusion  in 
Kamchatka  and  Alaska,  where 
they  are  still  found  to  grow  in 
abundance. 

Etymology.  —  Fragaria,  the 
generic  name  Avas  given  to 
this-  plant  by  Tournefort,  on  account  of  its  fragrance  ;  it  is  derived  from  the 
Latin /ra9?'fl?2s,  a  pleasant  odor.  The  specific  name  Virginiana  is  from  the  place 
where  it  was  found  native ;  and  vesca,  small,  on  account  of  the  size  of  the  fruit. 
The  name  straicherry  is  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  circumstance  that  in 
England  straw  was  spread  around  the  plants  upon  the  ground  for  the  fruit 
to  rest  upon  to  keep  it  from  the  sand  and  mud. 

History.  —  There  is  very  little  history  to  this  fruit.  No  mention  is  made  of 
it  until  tlie  days  of  Henry  VI.  of  England,  the  last  of  the  reigning  sovereigns 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  14.5.3,  when  a  poem  appeared  which  shows  that 
strawberries  were  known  in  London  at  that  time. 

It  is  also  related  that  when  Gloster  was  planning  the  murder  of  Hastings, 
he  requested  the  Bishop  of  Ely  to  send  him  strawberries,  and  Shakespeare 
makes  him  say  :  — 

"  My  lord  of  Ely,  when  I  was  last  in  Holborn, 
I  saw  good  strawberries  in  your  garden  there." 


Fragaria  vesca  (English  Strawberry). 


ROSACE.E. 


117 


The  strawberry  requires  a  generous  soil  of  light  loaiu  to  bring  it  to  perfec- 
tion;  and  (luring  the  ripening  season  it  needs  dry,  sunny  days  and  warm 
nights  to  perfect  its  aroma  and  taste.  When  j)ractical)le,  th?  fruit  should  be 
taken  from  tlie  garden  immediately  to  the  tat)l('. 

Use.  —  The  strawberry  is  a  delicious  fruit  for  dessert  or  for  jjreserving. 
The  mode  of  serving  is  well  expressed  in  the  line  :  — 

"  A  dish  of  ripe  strawberries  smothered  in  cream." 

It  is  not  oiilv  noted  for  its  delicate  fragrance  and  delightful  flavor,  liut  }ia.s 
a  higli  rei)Utation  for  its  healthfulness.  It  is  related  that  the  fatiier  of  botany, 
Linna-us,  w:is  cured  of  a  tit  of  gout  by  eating  strawberries,  wliich,  if  true, 
would  establisli  its  sanitary  or  curative  projjerties. 

Marts.  —  Markets  for  the  strawberry  must  be  local,  on  account  of  the 
perishable  character  of  tlie  fruit. 

PRUNTJS,  L.  (Plum,  etc.)  Ovary  superior.  Carpel  1.  Style  terminal. 
Ovules  2,  pendulous.     Drupe  l-seeded.     Trees  or  shrubs. 

1.  P.  domestica,  L.  (Damson  I'luni.)  Stem  from  4  to  6  feet  to  the  ]>oint  where 
the  head  begins  to  form,  and  from  4  to  G  inches  in  diameter;  much-branched, 
forming  an  open  head  about  15  feet 
in  diameter  ;  whole  tree  10  to  20  feet 
in  height.  Leaves  ovate-lanceolate, 
acute  or  obtuse,  varying  very  nnu-li 
in  shape,  1  to  3  inclies  long,  and  tlu-ee 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide ;  petioles  about 
1  inch  long.  Flowers  wliite,  usually 
solitary,  appearing  with  the  leaves. 
Fruit  very  dark,  varying  to  nearly 
■white,  clothed  with  a  glaucous  bloom. 
Stone  smooth,  more  or  less  flattened. 
Flowers  in  April  and  May.  Fruit 
ripens  in  August. 

The  number  of  varieties  is  very 
great ;  about  300  are  catalogued  by 
the  nurserymen  and  fruit-growers, 
differing  in  shape,  size,  color,  or  taste 
of  the  fruit. 

Geor/raphi/.  —  Tlie  jilum  is  widely 
distributed;  it  is  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  temperate  zone  .south  of  60°, 
throughout  Euroj)e  and  western  Asia. 
It  fl(mrishes  best  in  tlie  northern  and 
throughout  the  middle  regions,  and 
is  so  well  spread  tliroughout  Avestern 
Asia  a,s  to  make  it  dilhcult  to  fix 
upon  its  native  home.  Tt  was  l>rouglit  t( 
colonists. 

Etyinohxj  11 .  —  The  generic  name  pniinis  is  froin  tlie  JjWt'm,  pri/inis,  a  plum. 
The  specific  name,  dotiu  stirn,  given  l)y  T.inua'us,  exjdains  itself.  —  the  hou.se- 
plum,  or  cultivated  ])lum.  The  word  plutn  is  of  obscwre  signification ;  no 
meaning  is  known  for  it. 


Prcncs  DO.MESTICA  (Daiii.son  PliiinV 


•th 


-tern  .Vmeriea  bv  Europeau 


118  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

History.  —  The  plum  is  a  native  of  northern  Persia.  It  has  been  thought 
by  some  botanists  to  be  either  indigenous  in  Europe  or  well  naturalized.  This, 
however,  is  disputed  by  De  Candolle,  and  he  gives  good  reasons  for  his  opinion  ; 
yet  it  has  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings. 

Preparation.  —  The  prunes,  so  well  known  in  our  markets,  are  dried  plums. 
They  are  sold  under  the  name  of  Turkish,  French,  and  German  prunes.  Those 
prepared  in  Turkey  are'mostly  dried  in  the  sun ;  but  the  German  and  French 
prunes  are  kiln-dried,  and  the  German  fruit,  especially,  frequently  has  a  smoky 
taste. 

The  French  prunes  are  prepared  by  first  exposing  them  to  the  sun  in  thin 
layers  on  frames  made  of  wicker-work.  Tliey  are  then  placed  in  slightly 
heated  ovens,  removed,  turned,  and  put  back.  A  slight  heat  is  kept  up,  and 
after  tAventy-four  hours  they  are  again  withdrawn  and  turned  ;  the  oven  is  then 
heated  to  120°  Fahrenheit,  the  fruit  is  again  put  in  and  left  a  day,  after  which 
it  is  packed  in  boxes  holding  about  fifty  pounds  each.  The  finest  fruit  is  gath- 
ered, dried  as  described  above,  and  carefully  packed,  each  one  put  in  singly  in 
small  boxes  Aveighing  from  five  to  ten  pounds  each,  and  sent  to  market  for 
dessert  purposes.  Some  sorts  are  used  as  remedies  to  regulate  the  bowels. 
Large  quantities  of  prunes  of  an  excellent  quality  are  now  grown  and  prepared 
for  market  in  southern  California.  In  Bosnia,  Servia,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
southern  France,  the  industry  of  preparing  ])runes  is  also  largely  carried  on. 

Use.  —  The  plum,  though  not  so  delicate  as  the  peach  and  apricot,  is  never- 
theless a  delicious  and  favorite  dessert  fruit,  and  highly  esteemed  for  culinary 
purposes.  For  pies,  tarts,  preserves,  and  canning  it  ranks  high,  and  there  is 
no  fruit  dried  that  enters  so  largely  into  commerce.  The  French  and  Turkish 
prunes  are  well  known  to  every  housekeeper  in  our  cities  and  towns. 

Because  of  its  hardihood,  the  plum  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  fruit-trees 
for  the  farmer.  It  is  not  particular  as  to  soil,  and  the  crop  is  not  likely  to  be 
destroyed  by  spring  frosts. 

2.  P.  avium,  W.  (Ox  Heart.  English  Cherry.)  Trunk  6  to  8  feet  to  the 
point  where  the  head  begins  to  form,  and  from  10  to  18  inches  in  diameter ; 
bark  smooth  or  cracked.  Branches  erect,  forming  a  compact  head  ;  entire 
tree  from  20  to  40  feet  in  height.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  acuminate,  hairy  be- 
neath, and  double-toothed,  about  3  inches  long.  Flowers  in  umbels,  appearing 
with  the  foliage.  Fruit  globular,  ovoid,  or  heart-shaped.  Flowers  appear  in 
May ;  fruit  ripens  in  June  and  July.  Drupe  smooth,  no  bloom.  Stone  smooth, 
globular. 

3.  P.  cerasus,  L.  (Morello,  or  common  Bed  or  Sour  Cherry.)  Trunk  6  to 
12  inches  in  diameter;  head  low  and  globular.  Leaves  serrate,  acute.  Fruit 
globular,  red,  acid,  esteemed  for  preserWng. 

The  cherry  sports  freely,  and  we  have  many  varieties ;  American  nursery- 
men catalogue  about  500. 

The  French  divide  their  varieties  into  three  sections :  Griottes,  tender- 
fleshed  ;  bigarreaux,  hard-fleshed ;  guignes,  small-fruited  cherry. 

The  Komans  had  eight  varieties  during  the  first  century. 

Geography.  —  The  cherry  grows  well  throughout  the  temperate  zone 
wherever  the  apple  flourishes,  and  even  further  north  than  the  apple.  It  has 
spread  over  northern  Africa,  and  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese  have  taken  it  to 
southeastern  Africa.  It  was  brought  to  America  by  European  colonists,  where 
great  attention  has  been  given  to  its  cultivation.  The  climate  of  England 
suits  the  cherry,  and  Belgium  and  the  British  Isles  produce  the  best  cherries 


ROSACE.E. 


119 


in  the  world.     Cherry-trees  in  blossom  aro  f,n-eiitly  prized  by  the  Japanese  as 
ornaments  to  tlieir  gardens.  ,      r     • 

Eti/molo(]y.  — The  specific  name,  avimi,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  wr.rd 
avis  a  bird,  and  arose  from  the  circumstance  that  birds  are  drnd  of  this  fruit. 
Chern/,  tlie  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  old  Greek  name  cerasus, 
a  name  a])i)lied  to  this  fruit  because  it  was  found  growing  at  ("erasus,  a  town 

in  Pontus. 

^/5^,„.^.  _ 'Pliis  delicious  fruit  is  said  to  have  l)een  brought  from  Armenia 
to  Italv  by  Lucullus,  a  victc^rious  general,  about  seventy  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian 
era,  whence  it  spread  west- 
ward, and  was  no  doubt  car- 
ried to  England  in  the  days 
of  Agricola.  Its  popularity 
may  be  inferred  from  the 
circumstance  that  it  spread 
over  southern  and  middle 
Europe  in  a  very  short  time ; 
for  about  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era  it  was  to  be 
found  in  the  grounds  and  gar- 
dens of  the  wealtliy  through- 
out northern  Italy,  Spain, 
France,  southern  Germany, 
and  England,  —  this  too  at  a 
period  in  the  world's  history 
before  agriculture  or  fruit- 
growing liad  attained  any 
scientific  importance. 

In  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe  and  in  northern 
Africa  the  cherry  was  called 
the  "  berry  of  the  king." 

For  many  years  this  fruit  has  l)een  a  favorite  in  Germany.  Loudon,  in  his 
account  of  trees,  says  that  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  the  local  governments 
encourage  the  inhabitants  to  plant  trees,  and  in  some  neighborhoods  tlie  high- 
way pa^sses  through  avenues  of  cherry-trees,  to  the  fruit  of  which  tlie  trav- 
eller is  at  liberty  to  help  himself,  provided  that  he  takes  no  more  than  he  can 
eat  on  tlie  spot.  In  Moravia  the  highway  from  Brunn  to  Olmutz,  a  distance 
of  sixty  miles,  passes  through  an  avenue  of  cherry-trees. 

The"  ancient  home  of  the  cherry  is  believed  by  I)e  CandoUc  to  be  the 
country  south  and  cast  of  the  Black  Sea,  extending  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Propontis.  He  l)elieves  also  that  the  cherry  was  known  t.)  the  Komans  before 
the  days  of  Lucullus,  and  that  he  only  introduced  an  improved  variety,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  su])]H)sition  that  he  had  brought  to  Kome  a  new  fruit. 

^sg.  — The  cherry  varies  in  form  from  gloliular  to  heart-shaped,  and  in  size 
from  half  an  inch  iii  diameter  to  three  <iuarters.  and  from  three  (juarters  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  cpiarter  in  lengtli.  It  is  the  most  delicious  fruit  of  its 
season.  It  is  highly  prized  as  a  dessert.  It  excels  as  a  fruit  for  pies,  pud- 
dings, and  tarts,  is  a  favorite  preserve  in  sugar 
canned  and  dried. 


Prunus  cerasus  (Common  Sour  Cherry). 


as 
or  brand\ 


and 


largely 


120  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

4.  P.  Armeniaca,  Willd.  (Apricot.)  Calyx  5-cleft,  regular,  falling ;  petals 
spreading ;  stamens  15  to  30.  Fruit  a  drupe,  tieshy,  usually  glaucous,  covered 
with  bloom ;  the  pit  or  nucleus  ovate,  compressed,  smooth ;  kernel  shape  of 
the  shell.  Small  tree.  Stem  4  to  5  feet  to  the  point  of  ramification,  and  3  to 
5  inches  in  diameter.  Branches  numerous,  spreading,  forming  an  open  head ; 
whole  tree  10  to  20  feet  high,  and  about  15  in  diameter  througli  the  head. 
Leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  subcordate  at  the  base,  denticulate  conduplicate  in 
the  bud.  Flowers  sessile  and  solitary,  white,  appearing  before  the  foliage  ; 
petioles  with  one  or  more  glands  each.  Fruit  yellow.  It  flowers  in  April  and 
fruits  in  July  and  August. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  tree.  Nurserymen  in  the  United  States 
catalogue  120,  based  upon  some  form  or  quality  of  the  fruit. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  apricot  is  tropical  and  subtrop- 
ical, reaching  as  far  north  in 
Europe  as  the  40th  parallel,  and 
in  America  to  the  38th. 

It  has  become  very  widely 
spread  in  Asia,  Armenia,  Persia, 
China,  and  Japan.  Its  great 
abundance  and  high  quality  in 
Armenia  led  the  early  botanists 
to  suppose  it  indigenous  there, 
but  it  is  quite  as  common  both 
in  China  and  Japan,  and  in  the 
latter  country  the  tree  grows  to 
a  larger  size  than  elsewhere. 
It  grows  well  in  the  Southern 
Prunus  Armeniaca  (Breda  Aiuicot).  United  States,  and  especially  in 

California,  w^here  it  is  canned 
in   large   quantities   for  the   eastern   market. 

Ett/molu(/t/.  —  The  specific  name  indicates  that  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
received  it  from  Armenia,  and  therefore  called  it  Armeniaca.  Apricot  seems 
to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  words  pnecox,  early,  and  arbor,  tree,  early  tree, 
on  account  of  the  early  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

History.  —  The  apricot  was  carried  into  Europe  about  the  beginning  of  the 
first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  China 
as  well  as  of  western  Asia.  It  attains  to  great  perfection  in  Persia ;  and  on 
account  of  its  delicate  flavor  the  Persians  call  tliose  grown  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ivan,  "  the  seed  of  the  sun."  The  French  naturalist,  M.  Regnier,  thinks  the 
apricot  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  has  spread  by  cultivation  into  Asia  and 
Europe.  De  Candolle,  in  his  "  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,"  gives  su1)stantial 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  apricot  is  a  native  of  China,  introduced  thence 
into  western  Asia,  and  finally  into  Europe,  and  by  European  colonists  brought 
to  northeast  America,  wliere  considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  its 
cultivation. 

Use. —  The  apricot  is  a  beautiful  smooth  fruit,  smaller  than  the  peach,  but 
closely  resembling  it  in  form,  and  only  a  little  less  delicious  in  flavor.  It 
is  used  as  a  dessert,  and  is  highly  prized  for  preserving,  either  in  sugar  or 
brandy.  For  puddings,  pies,  and  dumplings,  it  is  next  to  the  peach  in 
favor. 

Marts.  —  San  Francisco  is  the  great  shipping  mart  in  America  for  the 
canned  fruit. 


ROSACEA. 


121 


5.  P.  Persica,  L.  (IVach.)  Calyx  tulmlar,  bpll-sl)ai)f'(i,  5  piirti^d.  Petals  5. 
Fruit  either  .smooth  or  toniento.se.  Tlie  .stone  or  jjil  rugose  or  wrinkled.  <»vate, 
Hat,  or  compressed,  acute,  separating  lengthwise  when  .struck  witli  a  hammer, 
inclosing  a  kernel  nmch  the  shape  of  the  horn}-  shell,  charged  with  Pru.ssic 
acid.  Small  tree.  Stem  about  four  feet  to  the  jjoint  of  raniirication,  and  4  to  8 
inches  in  diameter,  forming  a  symmetrical  head,  from  12  to  20  feet  high  and 
10  to  15  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  lanceolate,  serrate,  shining  above.  Flowers 
solitary,  rose-colored,  appearing  in  May.  Fruit  rijiens  August,  September,  and 
( )ctober. 

The  peach,  as  it  is  propagated  from  the  seed,  sports,  and  many  varieties 
occur.  Charles  Downing  catalogues  over  400.  About  80  of  these  are  suf- 
ficiently constant  to  be  relied  upon.  Of  this  number  a  few  are  clings,  so  called 
because  the  ])ulpy  envelope  adheres  or  clings  to  the  stone  ;  when  the  flesh 
comes  off  freely,  or  .separates  from  the  stone,  the  peach  is  called  freestone. 

Var.  laevis  (Nectarine)  is  au  important  variety,  having  a  number  of  sub- 
varieties.  It  is  a  tree  like  the  peach  in  form  and  size,  flowers  and  leaves.  I'he 
fruit  is  glabrous  or  downy. 

Darwin     considered     the  

])each  a  variety  of  almond, 
and  the  nectarine  a  form  of 
peach,  and  held  that  the  same 
tree  has  borne  in  successive 
years  peaches  and  almonds, 
and  that  peach  trees  have 
produced  tiectarities ;  also  that 
,  the  seeds  of  the  peach  have 
produced  nectarine  trees. 

On  the  other  hand  De- 
caisne  and  A.  P.  De  Candolle 
consider  the  peach  and  the 
almond  distinct  species,  each 
possessing  peculiar  botanical 
characteristics. 

Again,   the    home   of   the 
almond  is  western  Asia;  that  of  the  peach  China,  where  it  was  grown  centu- 
ries Itefore  the  Chinese  became  acquainted  with  the  almond. 

The  peach  is  not  at  the  present  day  found  in  a  wild  state,  though  it  escaj)es 
from  cultivation,  and  propagates  itself  freely,  especially  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  north  temperate  zone. 

Genrjraphy.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  jieach  is  the  southern  half  of 
the  north  temperate  zone  in  Asia,  Europe,  and  America. 

In  America,  south  of  40*^  north  latitude  and  north  of  32°,  the  ])each  is  an 
important  crop.  In  the  United  States,  southern  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  states  of  Delaware  and  Maryland  are  largely  engaged  in  its 
cultivation. 

Efi/tno/ogi/.  —  Persira,  the  specific  name  of  the  /learh  tree,  is  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  (Greeks  and  Komans  received  it  from  Persia.  The 
common  name,  peach,  is  .sup])osed  to  be  a  corrujjtion  of  the  low  Latin 
name  pesln. 

Flistory.  —  It  was  thought  for  some  time  that  I'ersia  was  the  home  of  the 
peach,  l)ut  De  Candolle.  in  his  "  Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants."  and 
again  in  his  recent  "  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,"  shows  conclusively  that 


Prunus  Persica  (Peach). 


122  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

China  is  the  place  of  the  peach's  nativity,  whence  it  has  travelled  westward 
to  Persia,  and  finally  to  Europe. 

It  was  introduced  into  Italy  from  Persia  by  the  Romans,  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius  Caesar.  It  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  during  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  thence  brought  in  1 680  by  the  settlers  of  Virginia  to  America, 
where  it  grows  to  great  perfection.  It  does  not  ripen  well  in  England  without 
the  protection  of  glass,  or  at  least  of  walls.  It  is  a  considerable  crop  in  France, 
especially  in  the  south.  In  China  and  the  United  States  it  reaches  the  greatest 
perfection. 

The  peaches  of  Pekin  are  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world.  But  Delaware 
and  Maryland  raise  peaches  whose  lusciousness  it  is  difficult  to  equal  and 
impossible  to  excel. 

It  is  related  that  in  Persia  tlie  delicious  flavor  of  the  peach  was  supposed 
to  be  accompanied  by  poisonous  qualities.  Pliny,  in  his  work  on  plants,  says 
it  was  supposed  that  the  king  of  Persia  sent  the  peach  into  Egypt  to  poison 
the  people  with  whom  he  was  then  at  war. 

It  is  also  noteworthy  that  the  peach-tree  holds  tlie  same  place  in  the  ancient 
writings  of  the  Chinese  that  the  tree  of  knowledge  does  in  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, and  that  the  golden  Hesperides  apples  of  tlie  heathens  hold  among  the 
western  nations.  There  are  traditions  of  a  peach-tree  whose  fruit  possessed  the 
power  of  producing  immortality  upon  those  who  partook  of  it,  but  which  bore 
fruit  only  once  in  a  thousand  years.  There  is  also  preserved  in  the  early  books 
of  the  Chinese,  an  account  of  a  peach-tree  which  existed  in  the  infancy  of  the 
nation,  growing  on  a  mountain  whose  approaches  were  guarded  by  a  hundred 
demons.    The  fruit  of  this  guarded  tree,  when  taken,  produced  instant  death. 

Use.  —  The  peach  ranks  with  the  pear  as  a  dessert  fruit,  and  if  it  were 
not  for  its  perishable  character  it  would  grade  far  above  tlie  pear. 

The  season  of  the  peach  is  very  short,  lasting  from  August  through  Sep- 
tember and  October,  to  November.  For  pies,  puddings,  dumplings,  and  pre- 
serves it  has  no  equal. 

The  fermented  juice  of  the  peach  is  distilled,  and  produces  a  highly  prized 
brandy. 

The  commercial  value  of  the  peach  crop,  including  the  large  quantities  that 
are  dried  and  canned,  is  of  great  importance. 

Marts.  —  New  York  is  the  point  to  which  most  of  the  fresh  crop  is 
brought.  Baltimore  in  Maryland,  and  Dover  in  Delaware,  are  the  centers  of 
canned  and  dried  peaches.  Canning  for  winter  use  and  export  has  become  a 
very  important  industry. 

6.  P.  communis,  L.  (Amy gdalus  communis.)  (Almond.)  Stem  10  to  12 
feet  high,  branching  into  a  symmetrical  head,  entire  tree  reaching  the  height  of 
2.5  feet.  Leaves  oblong-linear  or  lanceolate,  tapering  towards  the  base,  serrate 
and  glabrous.  Flowers  developing  before  the  leaves,  Avhite  or  pinkish,  appear- 
ing in  March  and  April.     Drupe  tomentose  or  stone  furrowed,  compressed. 

Var.  amara,  De  Candolle  (Bitter  Almond),  is  the  variety  producing  the 
bitter  almonds  of  the  market.  Flowers  larger,  pink,  tinged  with  rose ;  nut 
hard.     A  sub-variety  has  brittle  shells. 

7.  P.  nana,  L.  (Dwarf  Almond.)  Differs  from  the  P.  communis  in  being 
a  shrub  2  to  3  feet  in  height.     Flowers  solitary  with  a  colored  calyx. 

Varieties.  —  As  the  almond  is  produced  from  seed  it  sports  freely,  and  varie- 
ties are  numerous.  There  are  about  a  dozen  varieties  under  cultivation,  differ- 
ing  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  fruit  envelopes. 


ROSACEiE.  123 

Geography.  —  The  geugraphicjil  limit  of  tliis  fruit  is  between  30°  and  42° 
north  latitude.  The  tree  grows  well  in  the  latter  parallel,  but  does  not  fruit 
freely  north  of  45°  It  fruits  well  in  Virginia,  and  as  far  north  as  central 
New  Jersey. 

Etymoloi/i/.  —  The  (dd  name,  Atm/r/ddlus,  is  fr(jm  the,  (ireek  a/xvaau),  lacer- 
ate, due  to  the  gashes  and  fissures  in  the  shell  or  husk.  The  specific  name, 
comnninis,  J^atin,  signifies  "common,"  and  nana  means  "dwarf."  The  varietv 
name  cunara  is  also  from  the  Latin,  and  signifies  "  bitter." 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  iilmond  is  Persia  and  western  Asia.  It  is  aLso 
indigenous  throughout  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  and  was  no  doul^t  carried 
thence  to  northern  Africa,  southern  Europe,  and  eastern  Asia,  and  by  European 
colonists  was  brougli.t  to  the  U'nited  States. 

Use.  —  The  sweet  almond  is  a  favorite  jiut,  and  is  nmch  esteemed  as  a 
dessert.  It  is  largely  used  in  confectionery  and  sauces.  The  bitter  almond 
is  used  in  cookery,  for  flavoring,  and  in  perfumery.  The  nut  constitutes  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  Turbid  water  from  the  river  Nile  is  cleared 
by  rubbing  bitter  almonds  on  the  inside  of  the  vessels  which  hold  it. 

Oils.  —  Fixed  or  sweet  oil  of  almonds  of  commerce  is  obtained  In-  pressure 
from  both  sweet  and  bitter  almonds.  When  bitter  almonds  are  used,  the 
residuum  or  cake  is  subjected  to  fermentation,  and  the  volatile  oil  or  essential 
oil  of  bitter  almonds  is  obtained  therefrom  by  distillation.  This  oil  contains 
Prussic  or  hydrocyanic  acid,  in  its  concentrated  form  a  virulent  poison.  Prop- 
erly diluted,  essential  oil  of  ahnoiids  is  a  pleasant  and  wholesome  substance  for 
flavoring  custards,  puddings,  etc. 

PYRUS,  L.  (Pear,  Apple.)  Calyx  superior  to  ovary,  pitcher-shaped, 
5-cleft.  Petals  5,  roundish.  Stauieiis  many.  Styles  5,  frequently 
united  at  the  base.  Fruit  a  fleshy  pome,  with  5-2  carpels,  consolidated 
with  the  fleshy  calyx-tube.  Trees,  with  mostly  simple  leaves  and  free 
stipules. 

1  P.  malus,  L.  (Apple.)  Stem  .5  to  10  feet  to  the  point  where  ramification 
begins  to  form  a  diffusely  branched  head  from  10  to  20  feet  in  diameter,  and 
20  to  .30  feet  high.  Brnnchos  slender.  Leaves  ovate,  serrate,  acute,  crenate, 
woolly  on  the  under  surface,  glabrous  and  shining  above.  P'lowers  in  sessile 
corymbs,  roseate,  a])])earing  with  the  loaves.  Fruit  spherical.  Carpels  2-seeded. 
May.    Fruiting  from  July  to  October. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  the  n])ple  is  very  great,  and  as  it  is  ])ro]iagated 
from  the  seed,  it  sports  freely,  and  new  varieties  are  constantlv  arising,  (^f  late 
years  the  number  has  been  greatly  increased.  In  1870  the  number  grown  in' 
the  United  States  was  over  1.500,  everyone  of  which  claims  .some  desirable 
quality,  and  amateurs  are  yearly  adding  to  the  va.st  catalogue  ;  vet  so  fre- 
(juently  do  .some  of  these  varieties  deteriorate  or  die  out  that  only  about  89 
are  regarded  as  constant. 

Geography.  —  The  apjde-tree  flourishes  in  the  ])arts  of  the  north  temperate 
zone  between  the  ])arallels  of  3.5°  and  .50°.  It  does  not  fruit  well  soutli  of  that 
limit  unless  in  elevated  localities.  England,  France.  (Jermany,  the  Nether- 
lands, Prussia,  ancient  Poland,  the  I'nited  States,  and  .'Southern  Australia 
are  the  most  im])()rtnnt  a])ple-growing  countries.  The  varieties  which  have 
originated  in  America  are  numerous,  and  some  of  theni  fur  size  and  delicacy 
of  flavor  excel  any  yet  produced  in  Europe. 


124 


DESCKIFTIVE   BOTANY. 


Etymologtj.  —  The  word  pyrus  comes  from  the  Celtic  word  peren,  signify- 
ing pear.     Mains,  the  specific  name,  is  the  old  Latin  name  for  apple. 

The  common  name,  apple,  is  said  to  come  from  two  Sanscrit  words  mean- 
ing water-fruit.  Others  derive  it  from  abala,  or  ab,  a  ball,  and  ala,  little,  a 
little  ball-shaped  fruit.  The  Latin  word  pomum  favors  the  signification  of  a 
watery  fruit,  inasmuch  as  it  comes  from  po,  drink. 

History.  —  This  fruit  was  known  and  extensively  used  by  the  Swiss  lake- 
dwellers.    They  preserved  it  by  cutting  it  lengthwise  and  drying  it  in  the  sun. 

The  home  of  the  apple  is  sup- 
posed to  be  Persia  and  the  north- 
ern regions  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
is  found  without  cultivation  in 
northern  India  and  middle  China, 
and  throughout  middle  Europe. 

It  is  held  by  some  that  all  our 
varieties  are  from  the  crab  apple. 
While  apples  are  spoken  of  in 
the  Old  Testament,  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  the  fruit  referred  to  is 
our  apple.  It  was  taken  to  Home 
450  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  but  was  confined  to  the  gar- 
dens and  planted  grounds  of  the 
wealthy  for  many  years.  Pliny, 
in  his  book  on  plants,  written  in 
the  first  century,  speaks  of  the 
apple  as  a  profitable  crop  on  ac- 
count of  its  scarcity  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome. 

It  seems  that  engrafting  was 
practiced  at  that  time ;  for  tlie 
same  writer  speaks  of  apples 
that  will  honor  the  fruit-grafter 
forever. 
When  this  method  of  improving  fruit  was  first  used  is  not  known.  The 
Romans  had  22  varieties,  luit  no  doubt  some  of  these  were  natural. 

At  the  time  of  Vergil,  apples  must  have  been  common,  and  were  no  doubt 
an  important  article  of  food  for  the  peasants ;  for  the  poet  in  the  First  Eclogue 
makes  Tityrus  say  to  Meliboeus  :  — 

"  Stay  with  me  to-night,  for  I  have  ripe  apples,  soft  chestnuts,  and  plenty  of 
cheese." 
The  apple  was  brought  to  northeast  America  by  European  colonists,  and 
was  tlie  most  important  fruit  grown  in  British  North  America.  The  attention 
paid  to  the  apple  in  the  early  days  of  the  colonies  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
superior  intelligence  of  many  of  the  first  settlers.  Its  distribution  in  western 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  Avas  greatly  aided  by  the  efforts  of  an  eccentric 
man  who  a]ipeared  in  the  settlements  of  western  Pennsylvania  early  in  the 
present  century  and  busied  himself  about  cider-mills  in  collecting  apple-seeds 
from  the  pomace.  Having  placed  the  seeds  in  sacks,  he  loaded  them  upon 
a  horse  and  proceeded  to  the  unoccupied  lands  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio, 
and  wherever  he  found  a  clearing,  he  planted  his  seeds ;   then  felling  trees 


Pykos  malus  (Apple). 


ROSACEiE.  125 

iirouud  tlie  plajitation  to  protect  the  young  growtli,  he  went  on  to  new  fields, 
and  as  years  passed  on  he  returned  to  exact  jjayinent  from  those  who  had 
settled  on  tlie  lands.  He  was  a  benevolent,  inoffensive  man,  distributing 
religious  books  among  the  people  with  whom  he  put  nji  at  night.  His 
name  was  Jonathan  Chapman.  He  was  born  in  Boston  in  1775.  Very  little 
was  known  about  him.  On  account  of  his  strange  enijiluyincnt  lie  received 
the  name  of  Johnny  Apple-seed. 

In  the  door-yard  of  Delos  Hotchkiss,  at  Cheshire,  Conn.,  stands  an  apple- 
tree  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest,  largest,  and  most  fruitful  in  New 
England.  It  is  the  last  survivor  of  the  orchard  which  was  set  out  by  the  first 
settlers  of  that  neighborhood,  and  popular  belief  fixes  its  age  at  180  years. 
The  tree  is  sixty  feet  high,  and  the  tips  of  its  outermost  branches  are  <»ne 
hundred  and  four  feet  apart.  Mr.  Hotchkiss  affirms  that  lie  lias  picked  \27) 
bushels  of  sound  apples  from  it  in  a  single  year. 

Use.  —  The  apple  must  be  regarded  as  foremost  among  tbo  fruits  of  the 
temperate  zone.  No  other  fruit  is  so  agreeable  to  all  palates,  and  so  generally 
used.  There  are  so  many  ways  in  which  it  serves  man,  and  they  are  so  geuer 
ally  known,  that  it  seems  su])erHuous  to  attempt  to  name  them.  A  moderately - 
sized  apple,  of  any  variety,  either  sweet  or  sub-acid,  is  a  very  popular  fruit  for 
dessert.  For  pies,  puddings,  dumplings,  and  sauces  it  should  be  sour  <>r  tart. 
The  farmers  of  Pennsylvania  make  ''apple  butter"  by  boiling  sliced  apples  to 
a  pulp  in  new  cider.  In  the  same  manner  apples  are  cooked  in  sweet  wine  in 
France,  and  the  preparation  is  called  raisine.  Apple  juice,  when  fermented,  is 
cider,  and  forms  a  common  table  drink  among  farmers,  as  wine  does  in  the 
wine-making  districts  of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain.  \'erjuice  is  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  crab  apple.  Cider  when  exposed  to  the  air  soon  be- 
comes sour  or  hard,  from  the  formation  in  it  of  lactic  acid. 

Apples  are  preserved  by  drying  them  in  the  sun.  In  late  years  large  quan- 
tities have  been  dried  by  steam  heat.  Apples  form  an  important  food,  and 
large  (Quantities  are  exported  to  tropical  and  subtropical  countries. 

The  wood  of  the  apple-tree  is  close-grained,  hard,  and  it  takes  a  polish.  It 
is  valuable  for  turners  and  cabinet-makers,  and  is  largely  used  in  tlie  man- 
ufacture of  shoemakers'  lasts. 

2.  P.  communis,  L.  (Pear.)  Stem  from  20  to  40  feet  in  height,  and  from 
8  inches  to  20  in  diameter,  branching;  the  branching  is  upriglit,  forming 
a  pyramidal  head.  Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate,  acute,  sometimes  acuminate, 
somewhat  crenate,  serrate,  glabrous.  Flowers  in  corymbs,  white  and  fragrant, 
appearing  in  May.  Fruit  pyriform,  ripening  from  July  to  ()cto])er.  Carjx'ls 
2-seeded. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  this  tree  is  very  great.  There  is  no  single  fruit 
upon  which  more  care  and  expense  has  been  lavished  than  upon  the  pear.  The 
nurserymen  in  the  United  States  catalogue  about  3,000  varieties,  each  one  of 
which  is  represented  to  possess  excellencies  to  recommend  it  to  cultivators; 
but  the  pear  fanciers  of  France  and  Belgium  publish  lists  of  far  greater  num- 
bers. It  is  related  of  a  single  nurseryman  in  Belgium  that  he  had  growing  at 
one  time  80,000  seedlings  for  the  purj)ose  of  developing  new  varieties. 

The  varieties  have  reference  to  the  character  of  the  fruit  alone. 

Genrp-aphij. — The  geographical  zone  of  the  ])ear  is  from  35°  to  55°  north 
latitude.  It  is  native  to  China,  Syria,  Persia,  central  and  northern  Kurope. 
and  Great  Britain.  It  was  l»rought  by  colonists  to  northeast  America.  It 
thrives  wherever  the  apple  Hourishes,  l)Ut  arrives  at  its  maximum  excellence 
in  size  and  flavor  in  Belgium  and  northern  France. 


126  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

EtijTnology.  —  The  specific  name  of  this  tree  signifies  ordinary  or  common, 
from  the  Latin  word  communis. 

The  varieties  are  named  usually  to  indicate  some  quality  of  the  fruit,  or  in 
honor  of  some  person,  or  they  take  the  name  of  the  places  whence  they 
originate. 

History.  —  The  pear  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  spoken  of  by  Homer,  w^ho 
says  it  was  one  of  the  trees  in  the  garden  of  Laertes,  the  father  of  Ulysses. 

Pliny  also  mentions  several  varieties  growing  about  Rome.  There  is  good 
authority  for  believing  that  the  Romans  cultivated  about  thirty -six  varieties ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  they  took  their  choice  varieties  to  England  after  the 
middle  of  the  first  century,  during  the  administration  of  Agricola.  It  could  not 
have  been  largely  cultivated,  and  was  no  doubt  confined  to  the  gardens  of  the 
wealthy  for  a  long  time ;  for,  when  spoken  of,  reference  is  made  to  its  delicacy. 
A  record  is  preserved  that  in  the  days  of  Henry  VHI.  twopence  was  awarded 
an  old  woman  for  presenting  pears  to  the  king.  During  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury much  attention  was  paid  to  its  cultivation.  Near  the  end  of  the  sixteentli 
century  Gerard  published  his  herbal,  in  which  he  says  that  the  number  and 
sorts  of  pears  and  apples  would  require  a  book  to  hold  their  description. 

The  best  pears  have  originated  in  France  and  Belgium,  so  that  nurserymen 
have  come  to  regard  Belgium  as  the  Eden  of  this  fruit. 

There  are  some  remarkable  pear-trees  whose  size  and  age  may  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  Several  on  the  continent  of  Europe  are  known  to  be  400 
years  old,  but  the  most  Avonderful  pear-tree  is  one  in  Hertfordshire,  England, 
from  which  were  made  in  one  year  fifteen  hogsheads  of  perry.  In  1805  it 
covered  more  than  half  an  acre  of  laud ;  its  branches  had  bent  to  the  ground, 
taken  root,  and  thrown  up  shoots.  By  favoring  this  habit,  a  grove  of  trees 
all  connected  has  been  produced.  A  very  remarkable  pear-tree  is  now  growing 
in  Indiana,  about  ten  miles  north  of  Vincennes.  It  was  planted  by  Mrs.  Ockle- 
tree  about  the  year  1805.  The  circumference  of  this  tree  a  foot  above  the 
ground  is  twelve  feet,  or  about  four  feet  in  diameter.  In  1834  it  bore  184 
bushels  of  pears,  and  in  1840  the  yield  was  140  bushels.  The  fruit  is  of  large 
size,  of  good  flavor,  and  ripens  in  early  autumn.  It  bore  its  first  crop  in  1820, 
and  has  borne  a  crop  every  year  since. 

The  old  Stuyvesant  pear-tree,  wdiich  was  planted  by  Peter  Stu3^vesant,  one 
of  the  Dutch  governors  of  the  New  Netherlands,  on  his  farm  in  the  city  ol 
NeAv  York  about  the  year  1645,  was  blown  down  in  1867,  making  it  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty  years  old.  It  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk  in 
Third  Avenue  on  the  corner  of  Thirteentli  Street. 

When  the  pear  was  first  used  for  fruit  or  brought  under  cultivation  is  not 
known ;  it  has  been  stated  that  there  is  evidence  that  it  was  in  use  in  the  days 
of  the  lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland,  and  it  is  represented  in  the  pictures  of 
Pompeii. 

Use.  —  The  apple  is  without  doubt  the  most  important  fruit  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of  forms  in  Avhich  it  may  be  pre- 
pared as  an  article  of  food,  and  the  ease  with  w^hich  it  may  be  preserved  ;  bul 
for  delicacy  of  flavor,  the  pear  takes  the  precedence.  It  is  more  highly  valued 
as  a  dessert  than  any  other  fruit,  and  is  found  upon  the  tables  of  the  wealthy 
throughout  its  season.  The  favorite  mode  of  use  is  without  cooking  or  any 
other  preparation. 

It  moreover  constitutes  one  of  the  most  delicate  preserves,  either  as  a  candied 
or  brandied  fruit.  It  cooks  well  as  a  preserve  or  a  baked  food  ;  but  on  account 
of  its  lack  of  a  pungent  acid  it  is  not  suitable  for  pies,  puddings,  or  sauces. 


ROSACEiE. 


127 


The  juice  of  tlie  pear  when  fermented  h 
beverage,  as  wine  is  used. 


■all(*«l  perry,  and  is  used  as  a  table 


3.  P.  Cydonia,  L.  (Quince.)  JSteni  l)rauchin^  very  near  the  gruuud,  from 
3  to  6  inclies  in  diameter  ;  branches  very  crooked  and  irreguhir,  sparinglv  armed 
with  spines.  Leaves  obU)ng,  ovate,  obtuse  at  tlie  base,  and  acute  at  the  apex  ; 
entire,  snux^th  above,  wot)lly  beneath.  Flowers  solitary,  large,  on  short  pedi- 
cels, at  the  ends  of  the  l)ranchlet.s ;  calyx  lobes  expanding  into  small  t(jrnen- 
tose  leaves.  Fruit  globular  or  pear-sliaped,  golden-yellow  when  ripe  ;  clothed 
with  a  soft  down  in  an  unripe  state.  Seeds  numerous.  Flowers  appear  in  Mav. 
Fruit  ripens  in  ( )ctober. 

Like  other  fruits  grown  from  the  seed,  the  quince  sports,  and  we  have 
varieties.  The  nurserymen  in  the  United  States  catalogue  about  liu  varieties, 
each  of  which  has  some  quality  to  recommend  it  to  growers. 

Geography.  —  The 
geographical  zone  of 
the  quince  is  between 
35°  and  60°  north  lati- 
tude, extending  from 
northern  Persia  both 
east  and  west.  It 
was  brought  to  north- 
east America  by  Eu- 
ropean colonists.  It 
reaches  great  perfec- 
tion in  rortugal. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  The 
name  Cydonia  is  de- 
rived from  Ctjchn,  in 
the  island  of  Crete. 
The  common  name  is 
supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  one  of 
the  various  names  by 
which  it  is  known, 
most  likely  from  the 
Middle  English  name 
coine. 

History.  —  The  quince  was  known  to  the  ancient  (ireeks  and  Romans,  and 
was  highly  esteemed  by  them.  It  is  a  native  of  nortliern  Persia,  and  was  found 
in  the  island  of  Crete.  It  has  spread  westward,  through  middle  and  nortiu-rn 
Europe. 

Use.  — The  quince  is  a  well-known  fruit  of  the  apple  family.  It  is  not 
edible  in  a  raw  state,  but  is  valued  as  a  Havorer  of  other  fruits,  especially  of 
apples.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  preserving,  and  for  marmalades  and  jellies. 
It  is  also  preserved  l)y  drying.  In  England  it  is  used  f(.r  wine-making.  The 
seedlings  are  largely  employed  l>y  nurserymen  for  grafting  i»cars  ujion.  The 
seeds  yield  large  amounts  of  mucilage  used  in  preparations  for  hair-dressing, 
and  as  a  lotion  for  sore  eyes. 

4.  P.  Japonica  (Pyrus  Japonica,  or  Japan  Quince)  is  a  native  of  Japaji. 
The  fruit  is  not  edible;  but  the  Howers  are  very  showy,  and  the  tree  is  u 
favorite  shrub  for  ornamental  pur})oses  and  for  hedging. 


Pyrus  Cydonia  (Quince). 


128 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Order  XXIII.     SAXIFRAGACE-ffi. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular,  occasionally  irregular,  variously  arranged. 
Sepals  4-5,  more  or  less  cohering,  adherent  to  ovary.  Petals  4-5, 
inserted  on  the  rim  of  the  calyx.  Stamens  equal  to  the  number  of 
petals  alternating  with  them,  or  2  to  10  times  as  many.  Ovary  usually 
more  or  less  inferior.     Fruit  mostly  a  2-celled  capsule  or  berry  ;  seeds 

small.  Leaves  alternate  or 
opposite,  sometimes  whorled. 
Herbs  or  shrubs.  Number  of 
genera,  73  ;  of  species,  540. 

RIBES,  L.  (Cm-rant.  Goose- 
berry.) Calyx  tube  adherent 
to  the  ovary,  5-parted.  Petals 
5.  Stamens  5,  alternating 
with  the  petals.  Ovary  1- 
celled,  with  2  opposite  parietal 
placentae.  Styles  2  in  num- 
ber. Fruit  a  succulent  berry 
crowned  by  a  persistent  calyx. 
A  shrub. 

1.  R.  rubrum,  L.  (Common 
Red  Currant.)  Stems  numerous, 
slender,  sparingly  branched,  2  to 
4  feet  high.  Leaves  obtusely 
3-5-lobed,  smooth  aboA-e,  pubes- 
cent beneath,  2  to  3  inches  long, 
about  as  wide  as  long ;  unequally 
toothed,  incised ;  petioles  as  long 
as  the  leaves.  Flowers  in  pen- 
dent racemes,  not  axillary ;  bracts 
ovate  ;  petals  small,  greenish- 
yellow.  Berries  globular,  from 
two  to  three  tenths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  red  when  ripe.  Flowers 
in  April ;  fruit  ripens  in  June 
and  July. 

The  currant  sports  freely,  and 
many  varieties  are  under  cultiva- 
tion.     About    70    varieties    are 
catalogued  by  American  nursery- 
men, differing  from  the  species  in  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 

Among  tlie  favorite  varieties  are:  Cherry,  Versailles,  Red  Dutch,  Red 
(irape,  Wbite  Dutch.  One  or  all  of  these  may  be  found  in  every  well-fur- 
nished garden. 

2.  R.  floridum,  Heretier.  (Black  Currant.)  Like  R.  rubrum  as  to  habit  of 
the  stem.  Leaf  blunt  or  subcordate  at  base,  sharply  3-.5-lobed,  sprinkled 
with  resinous  dots,  and  doubly  serrate.  Flowers  abundant  and  showy,  white. 
Fruit  ovoid,  and  black  when  ripe.     Sometimes  cultivated  for  the  flowers. 


RiBEs  RUBRUM  (Commoii  Red  Currant). 


SAXIFRAGACE^:.  129 

3.  R.  nigrum,  L.  (Black  Currant.)  Stem  as  in  K.  ruhrum,  but  higher. 
Leaves  dotted  witli  resinou.s  sputs,  3-5-h)bcd.  Flowers  whitish-green.  Stamens 
sometimes  more  than  5;  for  every  additional  stamen  over  .">,  there  is  one  less 
petal.  IStignui  hitid.  Fruit  globose,  black.  Flowers  in  Mav  ;  fruits  in  June 
and  July.     Introduced  from  Europe. 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  currant  is  from  Lapland  to  southern  Europe, 
extending  (juite  across  the  continent  of  the  Old  World  and  the  northern  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  southern  and  middle  Canada.  It  delights  in  cool, 
damp  grounds. 

Ett/inoloyi/.  —  The  word  ribes  is  supposed  to  be  the  Arabian  name  for  the 
plant.  l)e  Candolle,  however,  believes  it  to  come  from  the  Danish  wcjrd  ribs, 
by  wliich  the  plant  is  known.  The  sjjecific  names  ruhrum  and  nigrum,  red 
and  black,  from  the  Latin,  are  due  to  the  color  of  the  fruit  of  these  species. 
The  wild  black  currant  of  North  America,  K.  Horidum,  was  thus  named  on 
account  of  the  showy  flowers  of  that  species.  The  common  name,  currant,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word  Corinth,  a  name  aj)plied  to  the  small 
seedless  grapes  of  southern  (ireece,  which  are  dried  and  taken  to  Corinth  for 
export  under  the  name  of  currants.     (See  Grape.) 

History.  —  When  or  where  the  currant  of  our  gardens  was  first  cultivated  is 
not  known,  but  its  usefulness  and  popularity  point  to  its  early  cultivation,  so 
that  we  may  date  its  origin  at  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  agriculture, 
as  we  are  justified  in  the  inference  that  as  soon  as  man  began  to  reside  in 
fixed  habitations  he  commenced  to  gather  such  shrubs  and  trees  around  his 
dwellings  as  he  found  producing  edible  fruit. 

The  Dutch  have  been  very  successful  in  producing  from  seedlings  varieties 
that  are  now  uniler  cultivation  both  in  Europe  and  America.  The  currant  is 
found  in  a  wild  state  in  north  and  middle  Europe  from  eastern  Siberia  to 
Great  Britain,  and  in  North  America  ([uite  across  the  continent,  and  north 
to  the  Mackenzie  Kiver.  In  northeastern  Russia  and  Silieria  the  currant  is 
employed  for  wine-making. 

Usp-  —  The  currant  is  used  sparingly  for  a  dessert  fruit,  but  largely  for 
jellies,  and  to  some  extent  for  wine-making.  It  is  preserved  in  sugar,  and 
canned.  It  is  used  in  a  green  state  for  tarts.  The  dried  currant  of  commerce 
is  a  small  grape. 

•No  other  small  fruit  is  more  generally  cultivated.  It  is  not  only  grown  in 
the  gardens  of  the  rich,  but  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  planted  grounds  of  the 
most  humble  cottager. 

Marts.  —  The  markets,  on  account  of  the  perishable  character  of  the  fruit, 
are  local,  except  for  the  dried  and  preserved  fruit. 

4  R.  Grossularia,  L.  (Gooseberry.)  Stem  2  to  3  feet  high,  numerous,  slen- 
der, 2  or  3  prickles  under  each  bud.  Leaves  3-5-lobed.  villous.  P'lowers 
greenish  ;  pedicels  1-2-flowered  ;  calyx  bell-  or  pear-shaped  ;  segments  reHexed, 
shorter  than  the  tube;  petals  rounded  at  the  apex,  beanled  in  the  throat;  style 
beset  with  long  down.  Fruit  usually  dark-red  when  ripe,  globular  or  ellipsoid, 
and  in  the  cultivated  varieties  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter. 
Flowers  in  early  summer,  fruits  in  August.  Indigenous  in  Europe.  Its  varie- 
ties are  the  cultivated  gooseberry.- 

There  are  about  100  varieties  under  cultivation  in  the  United  States.  One 
of  the  most  popular,  though  by  no  means  the  largest,  is  "Smith's  improved." 
The  American  varieties  are  inferior  to  those  of  the  British  Isles. 

.•>.  R.  cynosbate,  L.    (Wild  (iooseberry  of  Canada.)    This  species  grows  with- 
out cultivation  in  the  northern  United  States  and  Canada.     The  stem  is  spar- 
PR  Fl.— 10 


130 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY, 


iugly  beset  with  sharp  prickles,  in  pairs,  just  below  the  leaf.  Leaves  cordate, 
lobed,  cut-toothed,  and  pubescent ;  fruit  armed  with  prickles.  Flowers  iu 
May  ;  fruits  iu  August.  'I'his  has  not  been  improved  by  cultivation,  though 
for  many  years  it  has  been  an  occupant  of  our  gardens  in  the  Northern  States 
and  Canada. 

6.  R.  oxyacanthoides,  L.  (R.  hirtellum,  Mx.)  (American  Gooseberry.)  Stem 
as  in  the  last;  rarely  prickly;  spines,  when  present,  short  and  solitary. 
Leaves  rounded,  cordate,  3-5-lobed,  cleft  half-way  to  the  middle ;  toothed, 
pubescent    underneath.      Elov/ers    drooping,    green,    on    short    1-2-flowered 

pedicels;  calyx  tube  smooth,  bell- 
shaped  ;  segments  much  longer 
than  the  petals ;  stamens  protrud- 
ing ;  style  hairy,  2-cleft.  Berry 
purple  and  smooth,  small.  This 
species  is  cultivated  in  gardens, 
but  does  not  improve  by  cultiva- 
_  tion.     Flowers  in  May;    ripens  in 

■-^^'v^X^^l^i^h^^^f^^r^^l^^       August.     Northern  United  States 
c4A'*'%'^SeL..-,^»i?I^i^--'^^A^^3^^^       and  Canada,  and  w^est  and  north. 

7.  R.  rotundifolium,  Mx.  Stems 
3  to  4  feet  high,  numerous,  slender ; 
bark  whitish,  frequently  Avithout 
spines,  subaxillary  one  solitary. 
Leaves  roundish,  smooth,  crenate- 
dentate,  slashed,  with  3-5  lobes, 
truncate  at  base,  shining  above ; 
petioles  ciliate,  2  inches  long. 
Flowers  yellowish-white ;  calyx  cy- 
lindrical, smooth,  segments  linear, 
reflexed ;  petals  spatulate ;  stamens 
protruding  ;  style  smooth.  Fruit 
smooth,  purple,  very  pleasant  to 
the  taste.  Flowers  in  May ;  fruit 
ripens  in  August.  Northern  United 
States  and  Canada  to  North  Caro- 
lina.    Edges  of  open  woods. 

The  last  three  are  frequently 
found  in  gardens,  but  they  have 
not  been  improved  either  in  quality 
or  size. 


RiBES  Grossiilaria  (Gooseberry). 


Geography.  — The  varieties  of  the  gooseberry  under  cultivation  are  the 
offspring  of  plants  found  in  a  natural  or  wild  state  in  England,  France,  and 
Germany. 

It  also  has  its  representatives  in  the  Alps,  the  Himalaya  mountams,  and 
throughout  the  northern  United  States  and  Canada. 

It  is  indigenous  in  northeastern  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  along  the  Valdai 
hills,  and  the  cold  bogs  of  the  lowlands  of  central  Russia. 

Etymology.  — The  specific  names  are  all  Latin  words.  Grossularia  signi- 
fies "  thick,"  referring  to  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Hirtellum  has  reference  to  the 
roughness  of  the  plant.  Rotundifolium  means  "  round-leaved."  Cynoshate  signi- 
fies "  briery,"  referring  to  the  spines  on  the  stem.     Gooseberr y ,lhe  common  name 


COMBRETACEiE.  131 

is  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  a  sauce  made  of  gooseberries  was 
eateu  with  roast  goose.  Another  derivation  is  from  (/raise,  a  lierry  (old  French), 
corrupted  into  gooseberry. 

History.  —  The  gooseberry,  like  the  currant,  lias  no  history  which  points  to 
its  first  introduction  into  the  garden.  The  fruit  arrives  at  its  greatest  perfection 
as  to  (juality  in  the  Scottish  highlands  ;  but  as  to  size,  the  operatives  in  the  fac- 
tories of  Lancashire,  in  England,  raise  in  their  little  gardens  the  largest  goose- 
berries known.  Specimens  have  been  exhibited  measuring  2  inches  in  diameter. 
The  large  varieties  do  not  arrive  at  perfection  in  the  United  States.  The 
climate  of  England,  and  the  damp,  cool  atmosphere,  seem  exactlv  suited  to 
their  full  devek)pment,  while  the  hot  suns  of  the  northern  United  States  seem 
to  induce  a  mould  that  prevents  perfection  in  the  fruit  while  the  plant  nour- 
ishes. The  great  berries  grown  in  England  do  not  possess  the  high  Havor  of 
the  smaller  berry  grown  in  Scotland. 

Use.  —  The  gooseberry  is  well  known,  and  almost  as  common  as  the  currant 
in  our  gardens. 

It  is  used  in  a  green  state  for  pies,  puddings,  and  tarts.  When  quite  ripe, 
the  fruit  is  used  as  a  table  dessert.  It  is  also  canned,  preserved  in  sugar,  and, 
when  nearly  ripe,  bottled  in  water.  It  is  set  in  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  brought 
to  a  boiling  heat,  then  corked  and  kept  in  a  cool  cellar,  with  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  down.  In  this  way  it  will  keep  for  an  indefinite  period.  It  is  also  a 
favorite  fruit  for  making  jam. 

Marts.  —  The  markets,  like  those  of  the  currant,  are  local. 


Order  XXIV.     COMBRETACE.^. 

Flowers  perfect,  or  occasionally  imperfect  by  arrest,  in  axillary  or 
terminal  spikes,  racemes,  or  heads  ;  a  bract  to  each  tiower,  al.so  '2 
lateral  opposite  bractlets.  Calyx  superior,  4-5-lobed,  valvate  in  the 
bud.  Corolla  sometimes  absent;  when  present,  the  petals  equal  in 
number  the  parts  of  the  calyx.  Stamens  are  inserted  alternately  with 
the  petals  on  the  calyx,  and  are  either  equal  in  number  to  the  parts 
of  the  corolla,  or  double.  Ovary  inferior,  with  2-5  pendulous  ovules, 
1-celled.  Fruit  a  drupe,  or  berry ;  seed  solitary,  frequently  winged ; 
testa  thin,  membranous.  Leaves  alternate  or  opposite,  simple,  penni- 
nerved,  entire  or  toothed,  leathery.  Trees  or  shrubs,  sometimes 
climbing.     Number  of  genera,  7. 

TERMINALIA,  L.  Flowers  polygamous.  Calyx  tube  cylindrical, 
adherent  to  the  ovary,  contracted  above ;  limb  bell-shaped,  A-'y- 
toothed,  deciduous;  corolla  wanting.  Stamens  10,  in.serted  on  the 
calyx ;  filaments  awl-shaped  ;  anthers  2-valved,  egg-shaped  or  globu- 
lar, opening  lengthwise.  Ovary  inferior,  1-valved  ;  ovules  2-;i.  Style 
awl-shaped  ;  stignui  sharp.     Large  trees. 

1.  T.  chebula,  Ketz.  (Myrobalans.)  Trunk  40  to  70  feet  in  height,  regu- 
larly branched,  in  verticils,  forming  a  symmetrical  head.  Leaves  ovate,  on 
short  petioles,  alternate,  entire  or  slightly  toothed,  collected  at  the  ends  of 
the  branchlets,  spotted.  Flowers  in  spikes  or  racemes.  Fruit  a  drupe,  about 
the  size  of  a  i)ruMe. 


132  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Species.  —  There  are  about  80  species  of  Terminalia ;  those  besides  the 
T.  chebula  whose  products  enter  iuto  commerce  are  — 

2.  T.  bellerica,  Koxb. 

3.  T.  citrina,  Roxb. 

4.  T.  catappa,  L. 

5.  T.  angustifolia,  Wight. 

Geography.  —  The  homes  of  all  the  species  which  yield  the  myrobalans 
of  commerce  are  in  tropical  India,  along  the  southern  fringes  of  the  Ghaut 
mountains,  and  in  Burmah, 

Ktymoloyij.  —  Terminalia,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  circumstance  that 

the  leaves  are  usually  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  is  derived  from  the 

Latin  terminalis,  belonging   to  the  end.      The 

specific,  chebula,  is  Arabic,  but  the  signification 

is  not  known. 

Myrobalans  is  the  old  Latin  name  for  the 
fruit,  through  the  Greek  fxvpou,  sweet  juice,  and 
&a\auos,  a  drupe-like  fruit. 

History.  —  The  products  of  terminalia  were 

unknown  to  the  early  botanists.     Their  medical 

qualities  were  revealed  in  the  writings  of  Ara- 

Terminalia  chebula  bian  naturalists,  but  especially  by  those  of  Prince 

(Myrobalans).  Mesues,  a  learned  physician  who  lived  about 

the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.     The  fruits 

were  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  way  of  Arabia  and  the  Red  Sea. 

They  are  brought  to  market  in  a  preserved  state,  and  the  bark  and  pits  are 

shipped,  either  entire  or  in  a  pulverized  state,  for  tanning  and  dyeing. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  are  purgative,  tonic,  and  astringent.  In 
India  and  China  it  is  highly  prized,  and  supposed  to  possess  curative  proper- 
ties for  every  ill.  The  wood  is  hard  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  used  for  cabinet 
work. 

The  fruit,  bark,  and  leaves  are  all  charged  with  tannin.  They  also  yield  a 
dye  which,  with  alum,  produces  a  beautiful  yellow,  and  with  iron,  a  fine  black. 
The  leaves  and  bark  of  the  T.  catappa  furnish  a  pigment  from  which  the  cele- 
brated India  ink  is  made. 

T.  angustifolia  is  charged  with  a  fragrant  juice  of  a  creamy  consistency. 
This,  when  dried,  is  used  in  the  temples  for  incense,  and  for  tanning  and 
dyeing. 

The  tree  itself  is  sacred,  and  has  a  mythological  origin  and  history. 


Order  XXV.  MYRTACE^.  (Suborder  Myrte^.) 

Flowers  perfect,  regular,  axillary,  solitary,  or  in  spikes,  cymes, 
corymbs,  or  panicles.  Calyx  superior,  limb  4-6-parted,  persistent,  or 
falling,  valvate  in  the  bud,  occasionally  entire,  falling  away  Avdth  the 
expansion  of  the  flower.  Petals  inserted  in  the  throat  of  calyx. 
Stamens  inserted  on  the  cal\Tc  throat,  mostly  numerous,  frequently 
double  or  treble  the  parts  of  corolla,  or  indefinite ;  filaments  thread- 
like, free  or  in  bundles.  Ovary  with  2  or  more  cells  ;  seeds  numerous. 
Leaves  opposite,  rarely  whorled,  entire,  exstipulate.    Berry  or  capsule 


MYTirACKTE. 


133 


2-  or  more-  celled,  1-  to  niuny-seeded.     Small  trees  and  shrubs  ;  seldom 
herbs.     No.  of  genera,  70. 

MYRTUS,  I'ourn.  (Myrtle.)  Calyx  4-6-parted,  tube  attached  to 
the  ovary.  Tetals  4-G,  inserted  together  with  the  many  stamens  in 
the  throat  of  the  calyx ;  sometimes  absent.  Filaments  long,  free,  or 
combined  in  groups.  Anthers  opening  lengthwise,  dehiscence  in- 
wards.    Style  solitary;  seeds  attached  to  a  central  column. 

1.  M.  communis,  L.  (I'ommon  Myrtle.)  Stem  6  to  8  feet  high,  branched. 
Leaves  opposite,  with  puuetured  spots,  ovate,  lanceolate,  variable  in  breadth, 


Myrtus  communis  (Common  Myrtle). 


evergreen.  Flowers  axillary,  solitary,  white.  Fruit  a  berry.  2-.'3-ceI]ed. 
Evergreen  shrub. 

Varieties.  —  There  are  many  species,  and  of  the  conuuuuis  tliere  are  5  varie- 
ties known  to  the  Horists. 

Var.  Romana,  broad-leaved.     Leaves  leathery. 

Var.  Tarentina.     Leaves  like  those  of  the  box. 

Var.  Boeotica.     Leaves  like  those  of  the  t)range. 

Var.  Belgica.     Broad-leaved,  Dutch. 

Var.  mucronata.     Leaves  like  those  of  the  rosemary. 

There  are  other  varieties  of  this  species,  bnt  these  .5  are  the  most 
important. 

Geof/raph  1/ . — The  geographical  home  of  the  myrtle  is  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical, but  it  grows  well  in  regions  of  liglit  frost,  gradually  beconn'ng  ac- 
climated. By  some  it  is  sup])osed  to  be  native  in  southeastern  Italy,  and  it 
is  growing  now  in  all  tlie  countries  around  the  Mediterraiu'an  sea. 

Etymoloijfi.  —  Mip-tus,  the  Latin  name,  is  tlirougli  the  Greek  nvpros.  a 
myrtle-tree,  derived  from  the  Greek  fivpov,  perfume,  due  to  the  pleasant  odor 
discharged  from  the  bruised  leaves.      Cummunis  is  the  Latin  for  common,  or 


134  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

usual.  Mj/rtle,  the  popular  name,  is  Dutch,  and  is  a  corruption  of  myrtus,  the 
generic  name.  In  America  the  periwinkle,  which  belongs  to  a  different  order 
of  plants,  is  popularly  called  myrtle. 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  myrtle  is  western  Asia,  Asia  Minor,  and  other 
countries  of  the  Levant.  It  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  historic  periods, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  growing  upon  the  site  of  the  city  of  Kome  when  it 
was  founded ;  it  was  common  in  Egypt  before  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century. 

Pickering  makes  its  home  near  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  it  has  been  carried 
to  Egypt  and  other  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  spoken  of  by  the 
earliest  historians.  Anecdotes  are  rife  illustrating  its  use  and  value,  but  we 
have  not  room  for  them. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  of  the  myrtle  are  mostly  stimulant  and 
astringent. 

It  was  formerly  a  favorite  ilavorer  of  wine  and  food ;  the  flavoring  substance 
resides  in  the  young  twigs,  the  leaves,  and  the  berries.  The  leaves  are  said 
to  make  a  very  tolerable  tea.  It  was  held  in  great  esteem  by  the  ancient 
Greeks ;  and  a  place  Avas  set  apart  in  all  their  markets  for  its  sale.  It  was 
used  by  both  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  wreaths  to  decorate  victors  in  the 
Olympian  and  other  games.  The  Jews  held  it  in  great  veneration  as  an  em- 
blem of  peace,  and  among  them  it  constituted  a  part  of  the  bride's  decoration. 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Tlie  Mahometans  hold  that  it  is 
one  of  the  pure  things  that  Adam  carried  with  liim  out  of  Paradise.  It  was 
an  emblem  of  authority  as  well  as  of  honor,  and  worn  by  the  magistrates  of 
Athens  when  in  the  exercise  of  their  duties. 

The  fruit  and  leaves  are  both  used  for  tanning  goat-skins. 

The  plant  is  a  beautiful  object,  a  favorite  in  planted  grounds,  and  on  that 
account  has  an  important  commercial  value. 

EUGENIA,  L.  Calyx  4-lobed,  rarely  5.  Petals  4  or  5,  free  or  united. 
Stamens  numerous,  inserted  in  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  and  on  the 
receptacle,  in  several  rows ;  filaments  free,  threadlike ;  anthers  2- 
celled.  Ovary  2-3-  or  more-  celled,  ova  numerous.  Style  simple ; 
stigma  terminal.  Berry  crowned  with  the  persistent  limb  of  the 
calyx.  Leaves  opposite,  entke,  dotted  with  pellucid  spots,  Avithout 
stipules.  Flowers  axillary  or  terminal,  in  solitary  cymes,  or  panicles, 
2-bracted,  white,  or  purple.     Fruit  black,  red,  or  purple.     Trees. 

L  E.  caryophyllata,  Thunb.  (Cloves.)  Trunk  20  to  40  feet  high,  branching 
regularly  into  a  hemispherical  or  conical  head  of  great  beauty.  Bark  yellowisli- 
gray.  Leaves  opposite,  numerous,  evergreen,  oval,  acute  at  each  end,  entire, 
smooth,  thick,  dotted  with  pellucid  spots,  dark-green  and  shining  above,  paler 
beneath,  midrib  and  lateral  veins  prominent,  petioles  short,  Idade  3  to  5  inches 
long.  Flowers  axillary  or  terminal,  in  loose,  small  cymes ;  bracts  small  and 
falling  off ;  calyx  half  an  inch  long,  fleshy,  round  below,  upper  part  divided 
into  4  triangular,  spreading  teeth.  Petals  4,  tightly  imbricated  in  the  bud, 
forming  a  smooth,  spherical  head,  fringed  by  the  teeth  of  the  calyx,  falling 
off  early.  Stamens  many,  inserted  on  a  raised  disk ;  filaments  as  long  as  the 
petals,  spreading ;  anthers  small,  roundish,  opening  lengthwise.  Ovary  in- 
closed in  the  calyx,  small,  2-celled ;  ovules  many ;  style  simple,  shorter 
than  the  stamens,  slender,  tapering.     Fruit  in  shape  like  an  olive,  but  not  so 


MYRTACE^.  135 

lar^p;  soed  solitary;  all  the  ovules  but  one  l)ecoine  abortive  ;   outer  covering; 
membranous. 

Ge of/raph I/.  — 'Vho  /.one  of  the  clove  tree  is  narrow.  Its  home  is  thp  Mo- 
lucca islands.  It  has  been  planted  in  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  and  extended 
to  distant  islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans;  but  out  of  the  latitude 
of  the  Moluccas,  its  spicy  character  is  very  inferior. 

Eti/inolo(ji/.  —  Euyenia,  the  generic  name,  is  for  Prince  Eugene  <»f  Savoy,  a 
patron  of  Botany.  CarijophyUata,  from  the  Greek  Kapvov,  a  nut,  <pv\\ov,  a  leaf, 
due  to  the  appearance  of  the  flower-bud,  a  nut  in  a  leaf,  or  among  leaves. 
Clove,  from  the  Spanish  clavo,  a  nail,  on  account  of  the  fancied  resemblance 
to  a  nail. 

Histon/.  —  The  clove  has  been  in  use  among  the  we.steru  nations  of  the  Old 
World  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  and  was  taken  to  Europe  overland  by 
the  Persians  and  Arabs ;   but  its  native  country  was  not  revealed  until  after 
1.511.  when  the  Portuguese  came  into  pos.ses- 
siou  of  the  Molucca  Islands.    As  it  is  not  known 
in  a  wild  state,  the  exact  locality  of  its  nativity 
is  not  clearly  determined. 

The   enterprise   and   boldness   that   the  dis- 
covery  of    America    gave   to   navigators   and       ,    \=3i/  n  ^ir    /-=>     — -fe^ 
merchants  led  them  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  "^^^^J  '  ii:^^^  '   ^^^ 

discovery  of  the  islands  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
thus  opened  the  great  storehouse  of  the  spices 
of  India  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  the 
homes  of  the  clove,  cinnamon,  allspice,  and 
pepper  became  known  to  the  wondering  nations. 

In  the  17th  century  the  Dutch  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Spice  Islands  and  established 
a  monopoly  of  the  spice  trade.     They  raised  Eugenia  caryophtllata 

prices  to  exorbitant  figures,  and  confined  the  (Clove), 

cultivation  of  the  clove  to  the  Island  of  Am- 

boyna.  During  the  French  war  in  1810  the  English  for  a  short  time  held 
po.ssession  of  these  islands.  They  transplanted  the  trees  to  other  islands,  and 
broke  the  monopoly. 

Mode  of  Harvesting.  —  Just  before  the  flower-buds  develop  they  are  picked 
or  shaken  off  and  dried  over  a  fire  or  in  the  sun.  then  packed  in  bags  made  of 
the  leaf  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  thus  sent  to  market.  A  tree  yields  about  five 
pounds  for  a  crop,  and  bears  two  crops  in  a  year. 

Use.  —  The  tree  is  used  for  ornamental  purposes  in  subtropical  countries. 
The  wood  of  the  clove-tree  is  hard,  takes  a  fine  ])oHsh,  and  is  used  by  the 
cabinet-maker  in  fine  and  ornamental  articles  of  furniture.  The  clove,  in 
medicine,  is  a  stimulant,  aromatic,  and  irritant,  and  largely  employed  to  cover 
up  the  taste  of  disagreeable  drugs.  The  odor  resides  in  the  essential  oil,  of 
which  the  clove  yields  a  very  large  percentage.  Its  principal  use  is  as  a  spice 
for  flavoring  cake,  sauces,  and  confectionery.  The  oil  and  tincture  are  both 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordials  and  bitters. 

2.  E.  pimenta,  DC.  (Allspice.)  Trunk  2.')  t(.  .30  feet  high,  much  branched; 
branches  long  and  horizontal,  forming  a  hemispherical  head,  in  form  and  size 
like  an  apple-tree.  Bark  light-gray.  Leaves  elli])tical,  lanceolate,  opposite, 
evergreen,  obtusely  pointed,  conspicuously  veined,  deep-green,  shining  above. 
Flowers  small,  inconspicuous,  in  terminal,  3-forked  panicles.    Fruit  a  globular 


186 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


berry,  crowned  with  the  persistent  calyx,  smooth,  black  or  purple,  and  shining 
wlien  ripe. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  allspice  is  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical, and  its  distribution  is  very  limited.  Jamaica  supplies  the  markets  of 
the  world. 

Etymology.  —  Pimenta,  the  specific  name,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Por- 
tuguese pimenta,  which  signifies  "  a  color,"  from  the  Latin  pigmentum.  This 
name  is  probably  derived  from  tlie  fact  that  a  decoction  of  the  fruit,  bark,  or 
leaves,  treated  with  sulphate  of  iron,  produces  an  inky  black,  and  the  bark 
and  leaves  are  highly  charged  with  tannin.  Allspice,  the  popular  name,  is 
said  to  be  due  to  the  circumstance  that  the  taste  of  this  spice  was  thought 
to  resemble  that  of  cloves,  nutmeg,  and  cinnamon  combined,  hence  was  said 
to  possess  the  properties  of  all  tlie  spices. 

History.  —  When  this  spice  first  became  known 
to  civilized  man  is  not  recorded,  but  it  was  no 
doubt  taken  to  Europe  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
tlie  West  Indies. 

Its  home  is  the  island  of  Jamaica,  and  it  is 
abundant  in  the  mountains  on  tlie  northern  side  of 
the  island.  It  also  grows  in  Yucatan,  but  the  fruit 
is  not  exported  from  any  locality  but  Jamaica. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  it  to  culti- 
vation in  Cuba  and  in  Brazil,  but  all  efforts  have 
failed  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  fruit  or  the 
size  of  the  tree. 

The  leaves  and  bark,  as  well  as  the  fruit,  are 
aromatic. 

Culfiration.  —  The  tree  grows  best  without  cul- 
tivation, or,  at  least,  is  not  improved  thereby.  As 
the  groves  are  exhausted,  new  ones  are  obtained 
by  removing  all  trees  from  a  suitable  spot  in  the 
forest  near  an  old  or  exhausted  grove,  and  very 
soon  a  thicket  of  pimenta  trees  appears  from  seeds  which  have  been  sown, 
carried  by  the  wind  or  birds  to  the  clearing.  The  young  trees  are  allowed  to 
reach  the  age  of  two  or  three  years,  when  they  are  thinned  out  by  removing 
the  weaker,  after  which  the  grove  (or  icalk,  as  it  is  called)  needs  no  attention 
till  harvest,  which  commences  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  full  grown  but  not 
mature.  The  trees  are  full  grown  in  about  seven  years  from  the  time  the 
grove  is  begun. 

The  mode  of  harvesting  is  to  break  off  the  ends  of  the  branches  which  are 
laden  with  fruit,  and  drop  them  to  the  ground  (the  tree  is  greatly  benefited 
by  removing  the  fruit  before  it  matures),  where  women  and  children  pick  off 
the  berries  and  place  them  in  bags,  in  wiiich  they  are  carried  to  a  place  to  cure 
either  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat,  when  they  are  packed  in 
bags  for  market. 

The  harvest  occurs  in  July  and  August. 

Use.  —  The  tree  is  sparingly  used  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  leaves  are 
used  for  tanning  leather.  The  fruit  forms  one  of  our  most  popular  spices, 
used  for  flavoring  sauces,  cakes,  bread,  and  for  spicing  wines,  pickles,  and 
cordials. 

Its  medicinal  properties,  as  to  the  fruit  and  the  oil,  are  identical  with  those 
of  cloves. 


Eugenia  pimenta 
(Allspice). 


MRYTACE.E. 


137 


BERTHOLLETIA,  Ilunib.  and  Bonpl.  Calyx  l-partod.  Corolla  made 
up  of  4  fleshy  petals.  Stamens  united  at  the  base  in  5  concentric 
circles ;  filaments  thread-like,  short.  Stigma  cruciform,  sessile.  Ovary 
inferior,  4-5-celled.  Inflorescence  in  terminal  i»anicles.  Fruit  large, 
globular,  woody.  Nuts  numerous,  obovoid,  triangular.  Leaves  alter- 
nate.    Large  tree. 

B.  excelsa,  Humb.  and  Bonpl.  (Brazil  Nut.)  (Cannon-ball  Tree.)  Trunk 
.3  to  4  feet  in  diameter,  rising  to  tiie  height  of  150  feet,  branching  into  a  sym- 
metrical head.  Leaves  2  to  3  feet  in  length,  broad,  glabrous,  prominently 
veined  underneath,  leathery.  Fruit  subglobular.  Shell  or  luisk  woody,  6  inches 
in  diameter,  4-cened,  each  cell  containing  :i  or  4  nuts  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  te.sta  hard,  horny,  and  rough,  kernel 
creamy  white,  oily,  and  possessing  a  delicate  flavor.  There  is  only  one  species 
of  this  magnificent  tree. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  di.stribution  of  the  Bertholletia  is  limited  to 
the  tropical  regions  of  South  iVmerica,  extending  to  the  Isthmus  of  l*auama. 
Large  tracts  along  the  Annxzon  and  the  lower  reaches  of 
its  tributaries  are  covered  by  this  gigantic  tree. 

Etijmoloriji.  —  Bertholletia,  the  generic  name,  was  given 
to  this  plant  by  De  Candolle  in  honor  of  Berthollet,  a 
celebrated  chemist.  Excelsa  is  from  the  Latin  excehus, 
grand,  or  lofty,  due  to  the  gigantic  size  and  character  of 
the  tree.  Brazil  Nut  is  named  from  Brazil,  its  home ; 
Cannon-ball  Tree,  from  the  shape  of  the  fruit. 

Historij.  —  At  the  time  of  harvest  the  natives  ascend 
the  rivers  and  enter  the  vast  groves  to  gather  the  crop. 
For  the  same  reason  the  vegetable-eating  animals  assem- 
ble to  secure  their  share  of  the  delicious  fruit.  When 
the  great  seed-vessels,  weighing  several  pounds,  fall  from 
the  height  of  60  to  100  feet  and  burst  open  as  they  strike 
the  ground,  scattering  the  seed  in  the  midst  of  the  assem- 
bled men  and  their  monkey  cousins,  the  imagination  must 
be  drawn  upon  to  picture  the  scene.  Men,  women,  and  children,  monkeys 
of  all  the  Brazilian  varieties,  rodents,  and  other  nut-eating  brutes  all  rush  to 
secure  the  prize,  and  mingle  in  the  scramble.  The  Indians  club  and  pelt  the 
monkeys,  while  they  in  turn  seize  the  unbroken  balls,  flee  to  the  branches  of 
the  trees,  and  hurl  them  at  the  heads  of  the  Indians,  thus  presenting  a  feast, 
frolic,  and  fight  com])ined. 

The  seed-vessels  are  forced  open  either  by  dashing  them  upon  the  ground  or 
striking  them  with  mallets  made  for  the  purpose.  The  nuts  are  collected  into 
bags  and  baskets,  carried  down  the  rivers,  and  shipped  to  Europe  and  the 
I'nited  States  from  the  seaports  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  principally 
from  Para. 

Use.  —  The  nut  affords  an  important  food  to  a  large  nuinlier  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Brazil.  It  is  an  esteemed  dessert,  and  though  very  indigestible,  is 
highly  prized  by  children.  The  oil  obtained  from  it  is  an  excellent  table  and 
salad  oil ;  it  is  also  nnich  used  in  the  compounding  of  hair-dressings  and  for 
illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes. 

Statistics.  —  From  I'ara  alone  it  is  estimated  that  upwards  of  two  and  a  half 
million  fruits,  yielding:  about  fifty  million  nuts,  are  exported  annually,  in 
addition  to  the  lar^e  quant itics  which  leave  other  Brazilian  harbors. 


Bertholletia 
EXCELSA  (Brazil  Nut). 


138 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Order  XXVI.    LYTHRACE^. 


Flowers  perfect,  symmetrical,  perigynous.  Calyx  inclosing,  but 
not  adhering  to  the  ovary.  Petals  sometimes  wanting ;  when  present, 
free.  Stamens  equal  to  petals  in  number,  or  twice  as  many  or  more, 
inserted  on  the  calyx-tube;  anthers  versatile.  Ovary  2  to  6,  rarely  1- 
celled;  style  1.  Seeds  numerous,  usually  on  axile  placentae.  No  al- 
bumen. Fruit  a  pod,  more  or  less  inclosed  by  the  calyx.  Trees  or 
shrubs,  branches  frequently  4-angled.  Leaves  mostly  opposite,  entire, 
exstipulate. 

No.  of  genera,  30 ;  of  species,  250. 

PUNICA,  L.  Calyx  large,  broadly  tubular,  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
thick  and  leathery,  attached  to  the  ovary  below;  lobes  5-7,  thick, 
triangular,  acute,  smooth,  shining,  scarlet,  valvate.  Petals  5-7,  in- 
serted on  the  calyx,  alternating  with  its  lobes,  spreading,  imbricated, 
crumpled,  roundish,  with  a  short,  broad  claw,  crimson.  Stamens  nu- 
merous, free,  inserted  on  the  calyx-tube  beneath  the  petals,  crowded, 
erect.  Anthers  turned  inwards,  yellow,  opening  lengthwise.  Ovary 
thick  and  leathery,  with  two  tiers  of  cells,  upper  tier  5-8  in  num- 
ber; ovules  many.  Style  tapering;  stigma  simple,  head-shaped. 
Fruit  hard,  sub-globular,  abruptly  contracted  at  the  top  into  a  short 
neck,  crowned  by  the  thick  calyx,  size  of  an  orange,  reddish-yellow. 
Seeds  numerous,  angular,  covered  with  a  pinkish,  juicy  coating. 

P.  granatum,  L.  (Pomegranate.)  Arborescent,  14  to  15  feet  high. 
Bark  brownish-gray,  furrowed.    Branches  straight,  strong,  sub-angular,  armed 

near  the  ends  with  spines ;  young  shoots 
and  buds  red.  Leaves  opposite  or  fas- 
cicled, short-stalked,  and  without  sti- 
pules. Flowers  large,  solitary,  or  two 
to  three  together  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  near  the  ends  of  the  branchlets. 
A  beautiful  object  for  planted  grounds. 

Varieties. — This  is  the  only  species, 
but  as  it  is  grown  from  seed  it  sports, 
consequently  varieties  have  been  pro- 
duced.    The  two  most  prominent  are  : 
Var.  alba,  white-flowered. 
Var.  plena,  double-flowered. 
Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  pome- 
granate is  within  the  region  of  no  frost, 
PtTNicA  GRANATTTM  (Pomegranate).  ^nd  along  its  outer  fringes  in  the  north 

temperate  zone,  all  around  the  globe. 
Etymoloqy.  —  Punicn,  the  generic  name,  is  from  tbe  Latin  punims,  red,  due 
to  the  color  of  tbe  fruit.  Punicus  also  means  Carthaginian,  signifying  "  deceit- 
ful" (the  Carthaginians  bad  tbe  reputation  of  being  unfaithful),  apphed  to  tbe 
fruit,  which  is  beautiful  in  appearance,  but  not  delightful  to  tbe  taste.  The 
name  may  have  been  applied  to  the  plant  because  it  was  largely  planted  near 


cucurbitacf.t:.  139 

Carthage,  hence  called  roTimm  I'miicmii,  or  Carthage  Ajiple.  (irnnatntn  is 
the  Latin  for  grained  or  seeded,  due  to  the  abundance  of  seed  in  the  fruit. 
Pomeyianate,  tlie  coumion  uame,  is  made  up  of  iiomum,  ap])le,  and  granatnm, 
seeded. 

Historif.  —  The  home  of  this  beautiful  little  tree  is  I'ersia  and  the  adjacent 
countries,  whence  it  has  spread  tiiroughout  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  the  Levant 
southern  Europe,  Africa,  China,  and  Jajian.  It  has  also  been  brought  by 
European  colonists  to  southern  North  America. 

It  was  known  to  the  ancients  and  is  spoken  of  frequently  in  the  Bible.  The 
Hebrews  on  their  journeyings  through  the  desert  of  Arabia,  complained  to 
Moses,  saying,  "  It  is  no  place  of  seed  or  of  figs  or  of  vines  or  of  pomegran- 
ates." And  Moses  himself  describes  the  promised  land  as  a  country  of  "  wheat, 
barley  and  vines,  tig-trees  and  jjomegrauates."  Solomon  speaks  of  an  "  orchard 
of  pomegranates  with  pleasant  fruits," 

By  tliese  (piotations  we  are  led  to  the  inference  that  the  pomegranate  was 
an  important  food-plant  at  that  time. 

Use.  —  The  plant  is  cultivated  largely  in  the  regions  of  no  frost  as  an  orna- 
mental tree,  and  in  colder  climates  in  conservatories,  througliout  Europe  and 
the  United  States. 

The  fruit  is  used  for  a  dessert,  being  prepared  by  cutting  it  into  halves, 
removing  tlie  seeds,  filling  their  places  with  sugar,  and  sprinkling  the  whole 
with  rose-water. 

The  bark  is  highly  charged  with  tannin,  and  produces  a  beautiful  yellow 
dye,  with  which  the  yellow  Levant  morocco  is  colored.  The  bark  of  the  root 
is  used  as  a  vermifuge,  and  was  formerly  considered  a  specific  for  tape  worm. 

Statistics.  —  Outside  of  the  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where  the  pome- 
granate is  grown,  it  is  of  very  small  commercial  importance. 


Order  XXVIL    CUCURBITACE^. 

Flowers  inonnecions,  or  dioecious,  seldom  perfect,  solitary,  sometimes 
fascicled,  or  racemed,  usually  white  or  yellow.  Calyx  bell-sliaped, 
o-toothed  or  lobed,  imV)ricate  iu  the  bud.  Corolla  with  petals  united, 
wheel- or  bell-shai)ed,  .Vlobed.  Stamens  5,  mostly  H,  one  of  the  anthers 
1-celled,  the  others  '2-celled.  Ovary  inferior,  1-  or  many-celled.  Fruit 
a  many-seeded  berry.  Leaves  alternate,  petioled.  usually  cordate.  Stem 
succulent,  climbing  or  clambering  over  undershrubs,  etc.  Mostly 
herbs. 

Genera,  08. 

CUCUMIS.  L.  Cah-x  tubular,  bell-shaped,  fvparted  or  toothed,  teeth 
awl-sluiped,  about  as  long  as  the  tube.  Petals  'i,  slightly  attached  to 
the  calyx.  Stamens  in  three  groups.  Stigmas  3,  nearly  sessile,  stout, 
and  2-lobed.  Fruit  globular,  sometimes  flattened  at  the  poles,  and 
again  lengthened  into  a  prolate  spheroid  or  short  cylinder.  Seeds 
numerous,  whiter  or  yellowish,  oblanceolate,  acute  at  the  base,  and 
flattene(L 

L  C.  sativus,  L.  (Cucumber.)  Stem  trailing,  rough,  hairy,  5  to  12  feet 
long,  branched ;  tendrils  sim])le.    Leaves  cordate, .'.  t.)  C  inches  long,  angularly 


140 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


lobed,  terminal  lobe  largest.  Fruit  cylindrical,  5  to  10  inches  long,  and  from 
2  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  When  young,  the  surface  is  besprinkled  with 
tubercles,  armed  with  rigid,  sharp  bristles,  which  fall  off  at  a  later  state. 
Green,  turning  yellow  when  ripe.  Seeds  very  numerous,  yellowish-white, 
three  eighths  of  an  inch  long  and  less  than  two  eighths  wide,  oblanceolate, 
flattened  ;  about  twelve  hundred  weigh  an  ounce,  and  they  retain  their  vitality 
about  ten  years,  if  kept  from  the  air. 

Varieties.  —  The  cucumber  sports  freely,  and  many  varieties  are  under 
cultivation.  There  are  about  thirty  choice  kinds  recommended  by  seedsmen. 
The  Cluster,  Early  French,  White  Spine,  and  Early  Russian  are  among  the 
most  desirable  for  the  market  garden. 

Amateurs  favor  other  varieties,  but  the  above  four  are  the  most  popular. 
Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  cucumber  is  very  broad.     It  grows  well  in 
rich  soil  wherever  there  are  three  or  four  mouths  without  frost,  but  requires 

warm  nights  and  hot  days 
to  be  prolific. 

Etymology.  —  Cucumis  is 
Latin,  and  signifies  a  vessel, 
alluding  to  the  rind  of  the 
fruit,  Avhich  when  the  pulp 
is  removed  forms  a  cup 
which  may  be  used  for 
drinking.  It  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  Celtic 
word  cttcc,  a  hollow  vessel, 
or  from  the  Latin  cucuma, 
a  cooking-vessel.  Sativus, 
the  specific  name,  is  Latin,  and  signifies  sown,  or  cultivated.  Cucumber,  the 
common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  cucumis,  the  generic  name. 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  cucumber  is  the  northwest  of  India  and  the  region 
north  of  Afghanistan,  and  it  was  no  doubt  taken  into  the  Levant  and  southern 
Asia  at  a  very  early  period  in  history.  It  was  under  cultivation  in  Hindustan 
three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  plant  referred  to  under  the  name  cucumber 
in  Scripture  wa£>  the  Cucumis  sativus.  Nothing  has  appeared  on  the  Egyptian 
monuments  to  prove  that  the  Israelites  became  accpiainted  with  it  during  the 
period  of  their  bondage,  but  it  is  possible  that  it  reached  them  in  Syria  from 
the  East. 

It  worked  its  way  into  southern  Europe  and  Africa  by  commerce  and  travel, 
was  brought  to  America  in  the  days  of  Columbus,  and  has  become  one  of  our 
most  important  garden  crops  about  our  great  cities. 

Use.  —  It  is  largely  used  raw  when  in  an  unripe  state,  as  a  salad,  with  a 
salt  and  vinegar  dressing,  and  as  a  pickle,  in  America,  Europe,  and  especially 
in  southern  Russia  among  the  peasantry,  by  whom  it  is  stored  in  casks  under 
heavy  weight,  and  allowed  to  heat  and  reach  the  vinous  fermentation,  Avhen  it 
is  eaten  with  coarse  bread,  serving  the  purpose  of  butter  or  oil.  In  the  South- 
ern States,  in  North  America,  it  is  sliced,  fried  in  oil  or  butter,  and  served  up 
as  egg  plant  is. 

2.  C.  melo,  L.  (Muskmelon.  Cantaloupe.)  Stem  rough,  hairy,  5  to  10  feet 
long,  trailing.     Leaves  heart-shaped,  or  somewhat  kidney-shaped,  with  rounded 


Cucumis  sativus  ^CiuMiniber). 


CUCURBITACE^. 


141 


lobes,  ruugli,  huirv.  :\  *)  5  iuclies  loug.  Kluwers  jixillary,  <»ii  sh<.rt  stalks, 
velluw.  Fruit  globose,  from  3  to  12  inilies  in  diameter,  f;«;nerally  ridged  aud 
furrowed,  sometimes  much  Hattened  at  the  jxdes,  while  in  some  varieties  it  is 
much  elongated,  forming  a  short  cylinder,  or  oval.  Seeds  yellowish-white, 
oblauceolate,  Hattened ;  about  a  thousand  to  an  ounce ;  when  kept  in  a  uni- 
form temperature  they  retain  their  germinating  jiroperties  about  ten  years. 
Flowers  in  June.     Fruits  in  August. 

There  are  many  species,  and   ;vs  it  sports  freely,  very  many  varieties  are 
under  cultivation.     The  leading  varieties  in  America  are  ;  — 
The  Beech  wood,  an  early  variety,  Hesh  sugary. 
The  Black-Rock,  large-fruited,  very  sweet. 
The  Citron,  rich,  juicy,  aud  sugary. 
The  Larije-ribhed ,  very  large,  oval  in  form,  flesh  sweet. 
The  Nutineij,  delicious  in  flavor,  and  popular. 

Geo(jra/)hi/. — The  muskmelon  grows  to  perfection  in  rich,  sandy  soil,  in  all 
the  countries  of  the  Levant,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  in  fact 
in  all  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  through- 
out the  world.  It  is  a 
very  important  crop  on 
the  southern  plains  of 
New  Jersey  and  through- 
out the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States. 

Etymologf^.  —  Melo,  the 
specific  name,  is  from  the 
(Jreek  fiT]Kov,  an  apple, 
hence  an  apple-shaped 
fruit.  Latin  nn^lo,  a  melon. 
Melon,  the  popular  name, 
is  a  corruption  of  the  same 

word,  or  rather  an  Anglicizing  of  the  Greek  word.     Mn<^hnelon  is  due  to  the 
peculiar  ar.jina  shed  by  some  of  the  varieties,  Avhich  has  fancifully  been  com 
pared  to  the  odor  of 'musk.     Cantaloupe  arose  from  the  circumstance  that 
one  of  the  varieties  was  cultivated  or  originated  at  a  country-seat  of  the  Tope, 
called  C'antalouppi. 

J/ iston/.— The  muskmelon  or  Cucumis  melo,  is  indigenous  to  British  India 
and  Baluchistan.  It  has  also  been  found  wild  in  western  iVfrica,  in  Guinea, 
aud  along  the  banks  of  the  Niger. 

It  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  but  how  early  there  is  n  >  means 
of  knowing.     It  was  also  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  at  an  early  period 
'  in  history ,"brought  either  from  the  East  by  c(Mnmerce  or  travel  or  introduced 
from  Africa. 

^V.  — The  muskmelcm  is  the  richest  and  most  juicy  fruit  of  all  the  pep., 
familv.  In  the  Atlantic  States  it  is  the  favorite  first  course  at  breakfast,  and 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  dessert.  The  rinds  are  jireserved  in  ginger  syrup  as 
a  sweetmeat,  and  also  brandieil. 

The  following  anecdote  is  told  of  Frederick  tli.-  Great,  who  w:i.s  e.xtrava- 
gantly  fond  of  a  small  Egyptian  melon,  whidi  lie  i-aused  to  be  cultivated  in  his 
grounds.  He  one  dav  called  his  j.hvsician  to  treat  him  for  an  attack  of  in.li 
gestion.    The  doctor,  aware  of  the  king's  fondness  for  the  melon,  inferred  tliat 


Cucumis  melo  (Muskmelon). 


142 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


his  indispositiou  was  due  to  its  excessive  use.  He  therefore  advised  the  king 
to  abstain  from  its  use ;  to  which  the  monarch  replied :  "  I  will  only  eat  five 
for  my  breakfast."  At  the  same  time  calling  his  gardener,  he  ordered  him  to 
send  the  doctor  a  dozen  for  his  breakfast. 

CITRULLUS,  Schrad.  (Melon.)  Divisions  of  the  calyx  5,  nar- 
row, lanceolate.  Petals  5,  united  at  the  base  and  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  calyx.  Stamens,  in  three  groups,  connected.  Style 
3-parted.  Stigmas  convex,  heart  or  kidney-shaped.  Fruit  globular 
or  in  the  form  of  a  prolate  spheroid,  from  6  inches  to  2  feet  in  length, 
and  from  6  to  15  inches  in  diameter.  Rind  leathery,  greenish-brow^i, 
mottled  or  striped,  with  alternate  green  and  yellow  lines  from  an  inch 
to  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  filled  wdth  a  fleshy,  juicy  placenta,  or  core, 
of  an  orange-red  color,  sweet  and  edible.     An  herbaceous  vine. 

C.  vulgaris,  Schrad.  (Watermelon.)  Stem  8  to  15  feet  long,  angular, 
branched,  rough,  hairy,  slender,  trailing.     Leaves  3  to  6  inches  in  length, 

lobed,  and  the  lobes  pin- 
nately  divided,  glaucous 
beneath,  petioles  2  to  3 
inches  long.  Flowers  ax- 
illary, on  hairy  pedicels, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  length,  corolla  yellow. 
Flowers  in  June  to  July. 
Fruits  August  to  October. 
Varieties.  —  There  are 
numerous  varieties. 
Among  the  most  popular 
are  — 

The  Black  Spanish, 
somewhat  globular,  deeply 
ribbed  lengthwise,  skin 
dark  or  blackish-green. 
Quality  excellent,  and 
grows  Avell  in  New  Jersey, 
and  as  far  north  as  southern 
New  York,  especially  on 
Long  Island. 
The  Bradford,  or  Carolina  watermelon,  a  favorite  in  the  Southern  States; 
one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  long,  striped  or  mottled  ;  pulp  tender  and  delicious. 

The  Mountain  Sweet,  a  hardy  and  greatly  esteemed  variety ;  grows  well 
in  NeAV  Jersey,  Delaware,  southern  Fennsylvania,  and  Long  Island.  Pulp 
dark-red,  and  delicious 

Odell's  Large,  of  enormous  sixe,  round,  gray  ;  seeds  large,  grayish-black. 
A  single  melon  of  this  variety  has  been  known  to  weigh  sixty  pounds. 

Citron  Watermelon,  6  to  10  inches  in  diameter,  color  pale-green,  marbled 
with  darker  shades;  not  edible  rair,  but  highly  prized  for  preserving. 

Geography.  — U  arrives  at  perfection  only  in  tropical  and  subtropical  coun- 
tries, but  succeeds  well  ni  all  southern  Europe  and  southern  and  middle  North 
America,  up  to  the  41st  degree  of  latitude  in  North  America. 


CiTRiTLLUS  VULGARIS  (Watermelon). 


CUCURBrrACEuE. 


143 


Etymolorjii. — Citrul/us  is  derived  from  tin-  culur  of  ilic  imlp,  wliich  is  some 
times  of  an  <»rauge  red,  lieuce  orcniye  color,  or  citrus  c<»lor.  I'ulyaris,  commou, 
i>  from  the  Latin.  Watennelon  refers  to  the  watery  pulj».  Melon  is  an  adop- 
tion of  the  (ireek  word  /xriKuv,  an  aj)ple,  because  of  the  supposed  apj)le-shaj>e 
.»f  the  fruit. 

Hhtorii.  —  It  is  not  known  where  or  when  the  watermelon  wa.s  first  brought 
under  cultivation.  Its  home  is  in  Africa,  in  the  torrid  zone.  Livingstoiie  states 
that  large  districts  are  covered  with  it  in  a  wild  state,  and  it  has  not  been  seen 
growing  without  cultivation  out  of  Africa.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient 
Egvptians.  It  was  grown  in  Asia  at  an  early  date,  and  was  known  in  all 
the\\lediterrauean  countries  in  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  It  was 
brought  to  tlie  New  World  by  European  .settlers,  and  is  comuKm  in  all  the 
warm  countries  of  both  North  and  South  America,  where  F^uropeaus  have 
settled. 

Use.  —  Tlie  watermelon 
is  a  very  popular  dessert 
fruit,  and  the  rinds  are 
preserved  in  sugar  and  also 
braudied.  In  Egypt  it  is 
not  only  prized  by  the 
wealthy  as  a  dessert,  but 
it  constitutes  a  very  impor- 
tant article  of  food  for  the 
poorer  classes,  wlio  eat  it 
with  their  bread,  and  in 
fact  largely  subsist  upon 
it  during  its  season,  which 
is  long. 

C  U  C  U  R  B  I T  A,       L. 

(Pumpkin,  (iovird. 
Squa.sb.)  Calyx  egg- 
shaped,  corolla  bell- 
.shaped,     petals     united 

half-way  up,  yellow.  Flowers  monoecious,  axillary,  on  angiUar  stalks, 
Stamens  with  anthers  cohering.  Fruit-stalk  deeply  grooved.  Fruit 
globose,  flattened  or  prolonged  at  the  poles;  seeds  yellowish  wliite, 
obovate,  with  slightly  convex  sides.  Leaves  heart  or  kidney  shaped, 
stem  trailing  with  brandling  2-3-cleft  tendrils.     Annuals. 

1 .  C.  melopepo,  E.  (Flat  Squash.)  Stem  5  to  20  feet  in  length,  branching, 
tentU-ils  l)ranched,  or  partially  developed  into  leaves.  Leaves  heart-shaped, 
.5-angk'd,  G  to  8  inches  long  on  a  foot-stalk  as  long  a.s  the  blade.  Flowers 
yellow,  large.  Fruit  wheel-shaped,  flattened  ami  dished  at)out  the  stem,  and 
convex  on  the  0])posite  side;  circumference  lobed  or  est  allojied.  Flowers  and 
fruits  July  to  Oct.     Fruit  cooked  in  a  green  .state,  with  or  without  .salt  meats. 

'2.  C.  verrucosa,  E.  (Warty  Squash.  Long- necked  Squash.)  Stem  10  to  15 
feet  long,  tendrils  branched.  Leaves  from  6  to  12  inches  long,  and  nearly  as 
wide  ;  leaf-stalk  .same  length  as  the  blade.  Flowers  large  and  yellow.  Fruit 
obovoid,  or  club-shaped,  neck  frequently  crooked  or  curved,  roughened  with 
warty  tubercles;  when  ripe  tlie  shell  becomes  hard  or  bony.     Like  the  above, 


CUCUEBITA  MAXIM.\  (Gourd  Sqiiash). 


144  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

the  fruit  is  prepared  for  the  taV)le  in  an  unripe  state.     Flowers  and  fruits  from 
July  to  Oct. 

3.  C.  maxima,  DC.  (Winter  Scjuash.  Gourd  Squash.)  Stem  8  to  20  feet 
long,  trailing.  Leaves  large,  with  rounded  lobes.  Corolla  yellow,  segments 
curved,  or  rolled  outwards  ;  tiower-stalks  smooth.  Fruit  ovoid  or  pear-shaped, 
neck  sometimes  crooked  or  curved.  Variable  in  size,  frequently  reaching  the 
length  of  3  feet,  and  specimens  have  been  known  to  weigh  70  pounds.  The 
neck  is  usually  solid,  the  end  farthest  from  the  stem  enlarged,  and  contains 
the  seeds.  This  squash  has  the  characteristics  of  a  pumpkin,  and  is  used 
much  in  the  same  way  that  the  cheese  pumpkin  is. 

Var.  corona  (Crowned  Squash).  Fruit  expanded  near  the  stem  into  a 
broad,  circular,  turban-like  process,  much  larger  in  diameter  than  the  extended 
part.  This  expanded  part  is  solid,  and  the  cell  containing  the  seed  is  in  tlie 
contracted  end. 

Varieties. — These  are  the  principal  marrow  squashes.  There  are  many 
forms,  but  the  above  are  the  favorites  with  gardeners  and  amateurs. 

The  Custard  Squash,  a  large  variety,  is  grown  for  stock. 

Puritan  Srpiash,  grown  largely  in  New  England,  is  very  constant,  very  hardy 
and  productive,  and  raised  both  for  the  table  and  for  stock  ;  skin  white,  marked 
with  green  mottled  stripes. 

The  Valparaiso  Si/uashes,  of  which  we  frequently  have  specimens  brought 
from  California,  some  of  them  weighing  more  than  a  hundred  pounds,  have 
not  been  fully  described. 

4.  C.  ovifera,  Gray.  (Orange  Gourd  Squash.)  The  fruit  of  this  species  is 
small  and  egg-shaped,  and  by  cultivation  it  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to 
the  following  forms  :  — 

Autumnal  Marrow.  Stem  10  to  15  feet  in  length,  and  stout.  Fruit  ovoid 
or  spindle-shaped,  furrowed  and  ridged,  the  blossom  end  tipped  with  a  short 
nipple ;  skin  very  creamy,  yellow  ;  flesh  sweet  and  delicate.  Ripens  early  in 
August.     Keeps  well. 

Hubbard  Squash  is  in  shape  and  quality  very  much  like  the  Autumnal  Mar- 
row, color  a  bluish-green,  flesh  orange-color  and  delicate ;  smoother  than  the 
last,  8  to  10  inches  long,  and  6  to  8  in  diameter. 

Sweet  Potato  Squash  resembles  the  above  two  in  shape  and  character,  a  foot 
long,  7  or  8  inches  in  diameter,  skin  ashy  green,  smooth  and  polished ;  flesh 
salmon-yellow  ;  thick-fleshed  and  fine-grained. 

Var.  MeduUosa. 

Vegetable  Marrow.  Its  stem  12  to  15  feet  in  length,  leaves  deeply  5-lobed ; 
fruit  8  to  10  inches  long,  elliptical  in  .shape,  ribbed  and  furrowed  lengthwise; 
tlesh  white  and  delicate.     Keeps  well  through  the  winter. 

Etymologi/.  —  Melopepo  is  from  the  two  Greek  words  fxrjKov,  an  apple,  and 
TTfiruv,  a  melon,  an  apple  melon.  The  fruit  in  a  natural  state  is  of  the  size 
and  shape  of  an  apple.  Maxima  is  Latin  for  great,  and  is  due  to  the  size  of 
this  species.  Corona  is  Latin  for  crown,  given  on  account  of  the  turban  or 
crown-like  process  at  the  stem  end  of  this  variety.  Verrucosa  is  from  the  Latin 
verrucosiis,  wartv,  on  account  of  the  warts  that  abound  on  the  skin  of  the  fruit 
of  this  variety.  Ovifera,  from  the  Latin  ovum,  an  egg,  is  due  to  the  oval  shape 
of  the  fruit  of  this  species. 

Hist  or  I/.  —  Dr.  Gray  believes  that  the  C.  ovifera  is  the  ancestor  of  all  the 
American  scjuashes.  It  is  claimed,  however,  by  some  authorities  that  Europe 
or  western  Asia  is  the  home  of  the  C.  maxima.     But  Pickering  claims  that 


CUCURBITACEiE. 


146 


CuoTTEBiTA  PEPO  (Pumpkin). 


the  C  maxima  is  an  American  plant,  and  says  it  lia.s  heen  carried  thence  by 
colonists  to  the  Tacific  islands,  to  southern  Asia,  and  to  Europe  and  Africa. 
If  this  he  so,  it  leaves  us  in  the  dark  as  to  what  the  C".  maxima  known  to  the 
ancients  was. 

.').  C.  pepo,  L.  (Pumpkin.)  Stem  jjrostrate,  5  to  20  feet  long,  rough,  hairy, 
sparingly  branched,  with  branched  tendrils.  Leaves  large,  9  to  13  inches  long, 
and  5  to  10  wide,  heart-  or  kidney-shaped,  5-lobed.  Flowers  yellow  and  axil- 
lary. Fruit  cheese-shaped  or  club-shaped,  or  sub-glotnilar,  on  deeply  grooved 
peduncles,  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  solid,  but  not  hard ;  cavity  of  the  fruit  filled  with 
a  stringy  pulp  aud  seeds. 
Flowers  in  July  ;  fruit 
ripens  in  October. 

Varieties.  —  There  are 
many  varieties  of  the 
Pumpkin  under  cultivation, 
the  most  popular  of  which 
are  the  following  :  — 

Cheese   Pianpkhi,  which  , 

is  flattened  at  the  poles,  < 
and  from  10  to  20  inches 
in  diameter,  and  4  to  10 
inches  from  pole  to  pole, 
deeply  ribbed,  dished  about 
the  stem,  skin  reddish- 
orange  color,  leathery ; 
flesh  yellow,  sweet,  aud  del- 
icate. The  cheese  pump- 
kin holds  the  highest  place  among  the  varieties  of  this  plant,  on  account 
of  its  hardy  character,  its  size,  productiveness,  and  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  it  is  a  variety  of  the  C.  maxima,  brought  to  America 
by  European  colonists;  but  iiistory  favors  the  belief  that  it  is  an  American 
plant.  It  was  extensively  cultivated  throughout  the  Middle  States  at  the  time 
of  the  Kevolutionary  War,  and  was  carried  to  New  England  by  the  soldiers 
returning  home  from  service  in  New  Jersey,  southern  Pennsylvania,  and  adja- 
cent states  further  south,  where  it  is  still  found  growing,  with  great  constancy 
as  to  form,  size,  and  qualities,  though  the  cultivation  has  been  in  many  cases 
careless  and  slovenly. 

Camuhi  Ptunpkin  is  in  the  form  of  a  flattened  globe,  deeply  ribbed.  10  to 
15  inches  in  diameter,  and  8  to  10  inches  at  the  poles.  Skin  yellow  and  hard  ; 
flesh  yellow.  Mucli  cultivated  for  cattle,  and  also  for  table  use.  It  grows 
better  in  a  higher  latitude  than  the  cheese  pumpkin. 

Common  Field  Pumpkin,  or  Leather  Pack.  Globose,  ends  flattened,  rather 
longer  than  broad,  10  to  14  inches  long,  and  8  to  12  in  diameter.  Grown 
for  stock,  and  sparingly  for  the  table.  Kibbed,  yellow;  skin  hard,  flesli 
yellow.     Leaves  deeply  lobed. 

Sugar  Pumpkin.  Grows  in  the  form  of  a  flattened  sphere,  about  9  inches 
in  diameter,  and  6  at  the  poles.  The  smallest  of  the  varieties  under  culti- 
vation;  a  prolific  bearer,  and  of  excellent  (piality.  Grooved  skin,  bright 
orange-yellow;  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  delicate,  and  finegrained.  Stem  long, 
ridged,  and  grooved. 

There  are  other  varieties,  but  the  above  are  the  favorites,  and  most  impor- 
tant to  gardeners  and  agriculturists. 
PR.  Fl.  — 11 


146  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  The  Gourd  family,  of  which  the  pumpkiu  aud  squash  are 
members,  delights  in  a  warm  climate,  but  fruits  well  as  far  north  and  south 
of  the  equator  as  the  middle  of  the  temperate  zones. 

Etjjmology. —  Cucurbita  is  the  Latin  for  gourd,  a  hollow  vessel  or  a  cup,  and 
must  allude  to  the  circumstance  that  these  plants  are  hollow,  or  become  so 
when  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  vine.  Some  derive  this  from  the  Latin  curvitas, 
crookedness,  alluding  to  the  form  of  some  of  the  club-shaped  gourds,  whose 
necks  are  curved.  Pepo  is  from  the  Greek  ireVwi',  a  melon.  Pumpkin  is  a- 
corruption  of  the  French  word  pompon,  a  melon.  The  popular  names  all 
explain  tliemselves. 

Historij.  —  The  home  of  the  pumpkin  is  believed  to  be  America.  It  has 
been  found  growing  wild  in  Mexico,  and  was  under  cultivation  by  the  abo- 
rigines in  Florida,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies,  when  these  regions  were  first 
visited  by  Europeans.  Dr.  Gray  believed  that  all  tlie  species  except  C.  maxima 
are  American.  The  species  aud  varieties  of  this  genus  have  been  so  confused 
that  this  is  not  certain. 

Use.  —  The  cheese  pumpkin  and  the  sugar  pumpkin  are  esteemed  for 
making  the  celebrated  New  England  pumpkiu  pies.  They  also,  like  the  other 
varieties,  are  grown  for  feeding  cattle.  They  are  valuable  for  milch  cows  be- 
cause they  not  only  promote  the  flow  of  milk  but  improve  its  quality.  In 
Europe  the  pumpkin  pie  is  prepared  by  making  a  circular  orifice  in  the  top, 
the  center  of  which  is  the  stem.  Through  this  hole  the  seeds  and  pulp  are 
removed,  and  the  cavity  filled  with  sliced  apples,  spices  aud  sugar.  The  whole 
is  then  baked,  and  served. 

Order  XXVIIL    UMBELLIFER^. 

Flowers  small,  5-merous,  superior,  in  simple  or  compound  umbels. 
Cal}^  lobes  minute,  tube  adnate  to  ovary.  Ovary  2-celled,  each  with 
a  pendulous  ovule.  Fruit,  2  dry  indehiscent  akenes,  separating  from 
a  carpophore  ;  each  akene  with  5  primary  and  often  4  secondary  ribs. 
Number  of  genera,  152. 

APIUM,  Hoffm.  (Celery.)  Calyx  without  teeth,  base  of  style  flat. 
Petals  white,  entire,  with  a  small  apex  bent  in.  Fruit,  egg-  or  globe- 
shaped.  Carpels  nearly  straight,  with  5  thread-like  ribs ;  channels 
with  single  oil-tubes,  except  the  outer  ones,  which  sometimes  have 
more.  Leaves  pinnately  or  ternately  divided  ;  divisions  wedge-shaped ; 
umbels  opposite  the  leaves.     Biennial  herb. 

A.  graveolens,  L.  Stem  2  to  3  feet  high,  branching,  channelled.  Leaves 
from  the  root,  on  long,  stout  stalks,  green ;  stem  leaves  on  short  stalks. 
Flowers  terminal  and  axillary,  those  in  the  axils  on  very  short  foot-stalks ; 
rays  unequal ;  petals  greenish-white.  Fruit  subglobular.  Flowers  in  July. 
Fruit  in  September. 

The  celery  sports  freely,  and  many  varieties  have  arisen,  for  the  names 
of  which  the  student  is  referred  to  the  seedsmen's  catalogues.  There  are 
about  20  choice  varieties  under  cultivation  by  the  market  gardeners  and 
amateurs. 

Geographi/.  —  lts  geographical  distribution  is  very  wide.  It  is  indigenous 
to  Great  Britain,  all  the  coast  of  western  Europe,  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
raueaii;  aud  it  is  found  in  the  Peloponnesus,  on  the  foothills  of  the  Caucasus, 


UMBELLIFER^.  147 

aud  in  Palestine.  It  is  also  native  to  Soutli  America,  and  along  the  western 
coast  as  far  north  as  southern  California.  Watson,  in  his  '*  Flora  of  Califor- 
nia," speaks  of  it  as  very  rare,  but  says  it  is  found  in  the  salt  marshes  down 
the  coast. 

Etfjvwloyii.  —  Apiiuii  is  traced  to  the  Celtic  word  upon,  water,  due  to  the 
habitat  of  the  plant,  which  is  in  wet  places.  Graveolens,  the  specific  name,  is 
from  the  Latin  gravis,  heavy,  and  oleo,  smell,  whence  "  heavy  smell,"  or  "  strong 
smell,"  on  account  of  tlie  peculiar  odor  of  the  plant.  Celery,  the  common 
name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  Greek  word  <t4\ivov,  par.sley. 

History.  —  We  do  not  know  where  or  when  the  celery  was  first  used  as  a 
table  vegetable.  It  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is 
mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides,  and  Tliny.  It  was  also  u.sed  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians. 

Cultiration.  —  The  seed  is  sown  like  a  cabbage-seed;  and  when  the  plants 
are  from  three  to  six  inches  high,  they  are  pricked  out  in  beds.  In  August 
they  are  .set  in  well  fertilized  trenches,  about  8  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
and  allowed  to  grow  till  October,  at  which  time  a  number  of  long-stalked 
leaves  are  developed  ;  these  are  then  held  together  to  prevent  the  earth  from 
getting  among  them,  and  banked,  and  thus  left  to  bleach  till  frost  appear.s, 
when  they  are  ready  for  the  table. 

Use.  —  Celery  is  the  most  delicate  and  highly  esteemed  of  all  salads  in  use. 
When  properly  blanched,  the  leaf-stalks  are  a  delicate  creamy  white,  and  the 
flavor  is  greatly  admired.  It  is  either  served  in  this  form  and  eaten  with  salt 
or  with  prepared  dressing ;  occasionally  it  is  cooked  and  eaten  with  a  vinegar 
dressing.  The  Turnip-rooted  variety  is  cooked  and  eaten  witli  salad  dress- 
ings. It  is  used  also  for  flavoring  soups  and  gravies.  Its  medicinal  prop- 
erties are  said  to  be  diuretic  and  tonic,  producing  biliary  secretion,  and  it  is 
recommended  for  rheumatism.  The  Egyptians  used  it  to  prevent  aud  to  cure 
sea-sickness. 

PIMPINELLA,  L.  (Anise.)  Cal\T?:  limb  indistinct,  teeth  wanting; 
petals  white,  obcordate,  unequal,  notched,  flowers  usuajiv  perfect,  but 
sometimes  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  on  different  flowers.  Styles 
long  and  slender.  Bracts  of  involucre  few,  small  or  wanting.  Leaves 
decompound.  Fruit  egg-shaped,  ribbed,  with  convex  intervals.  Peren- 
nial iierb. 

P.  anisum,  L.  Stem  2  feet  high  ;  branches  slender  :  lower  leaves  roundish- 
heart-shaped,  cut  into  three  lobes  by  deep  incisions ;  leaves  on  the  middle 
and  upper  parts  of  the  stem  pinnate,  parts  wedge-shaped ;  umbels  large  and 
loose ;  stalks  of  the  umbellets  unequal  in  length ;  flowers  yellowish-white, 
appearing  in  July. 

There  are  many  species,  but  the  anisum  is  the  one  under  cultivation  for  the 
production  of  the  oil  of  anise. 

Geography.  —  The  ani.se  seeds  of  commerce  are  produced  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
in  the  i.^^land  of  Malta,  and  in  Spain,  and  in  late  years  the  plant  has  been 
largely  cultivated  in  Southern  Germany.  It  has  worked  its  way  east  of  Syria 
to  Hindustan,  and  to  Japan.  The  best  seed  is  brought  from  Egypt.  The 
plant  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Greek 
Islands. 

Etymology.  —  PimpineUa  is  a  corruption  of  bipinnate,  due  to  the  divisions 
of  its  leaf.     Anisum  is  from  the  Greek  word  avS/xotoi,  unequal,  the  ancient 


148 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


name  referring  to  the  inequality  in  the  length  of  stalks  of  umbellets,  or  per- 
haps to  the  unequal  petals.  Anise,  the  popular  name,  is  a  corruption  of 
anisani. 

History.  —  The  anise  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  mentioned  by  Dios- 
corides,  and  described  by  Pliny,  who  says  the  best  is  brought  from  Crete  and 
from  Egypt.  It  is  one  of  the  plants  Charlemagne  ordered  his  gardener  to 
cultivate  in  the  royal  gardens.  It  is  one  of  the  products  carried  into  England 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  upon  which  an  impost  duty  was  levied. 
It  was  brought  to  North  America  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
by  European  colonists,  and  is  sometimes  planted  in  gardens  in  the  Middle 

States,  but  seldom  fruits. 
The  anise  named  in  the 
New  Testament  is  held 
by  some  to  be  another 
plant. 

Use.  —  The  essential 
oil  of  anise  is  obtained  by 
distillation  from  the  seed. 
It  is  used  in  medicine  as 
a  stimulant  and  carmin- 
ative, as  a  stomachic  and 
antispasmodic,  and  to 
cover  the  disagreeable 
taste  of  other  medicines 
in  compounding  reme- 
dies such  as  paregoric, 
cough  mixtures,  and 
cordials. 

Rats  and  mice  are  very 
fond  of  it,  and  it  is  used 
by  vermin-destroyers  to 
perfume  their  bait.  The 
sprigs  are  sometimes  used  to  garnish  dishes  at  the  table,  and  as  a  condiment 
for  meats.  In  Germany  and  Middle  Europe  it  is  used  to  flavor  bread,  cakes, 
and  cheese. 

Note.  —The  fruit  of  the  Illicium  anisatum  (Star  Anise),  a  small  evergreen 
tree  of  the  order  Magnoliaceae,  when  distilled  yields  an  oil  identical  in  odor, 
chemical  analysis,  and  medicinal  properties  with  the  oil  of  pimpinella,  for 
which  it  is  sometimes  substituted. 


Pimpinella  anisum  (Anise). 


F(ENICULUM,  Hoffm.  Calyx  limb  indistinct.  Petals  roundish- 
obovate,  entire,  truncate,  involute.  Cremocarps  oblong  or  ellipsoid, 
ovoid,  not  flattened.  Columella  2-parted,  the  branches  attached  to 
mericarps ;  mericarps  with  5  prominent  obtusely  keeled  ridges,  side 
ones  a  little  broader  and  marginal,  a  single  oil-vessel  in  each  space. 
Flowers,  small,  deep  yellow,  not  radiant.  Umbels  large  and  com- 
pound, without  involucres.  Leaves  decompound,  with  thread-like 
segments.     A  biennial  herb. 

1.  F.  vulgare,  Gaert.  (Fennel.)  Stem  erect,  terete,  thick,  striate,  smooth, 
bright  green,  large  pith,  through  the  center  of  M^hich  extends  a  small  tube. 


UMBELLlFERyE. 


149 


Rootstock  thickened.  Leaves  ou  short,  Hatteued  footstalks  embracing  the 
stem,  trianguhir  in  outline,  three  or  four  times  pinnate,  sejijments  or  divisions 
thread-like  and  bristly.  Flowers  small,  on  short  pedicels,  bright  yellow,  in 
large,  regular,  10-30-rayed  umbels,  without  involucres;  petals  entire,  invo- 
lute. Cremocarps  olive-colored,  oblong-oval,  barely  flattened,  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  prominently  ridged;  whole  plant  deep  green.  Fruit  aromatic, 
stimulant,  stomachic.  Root  and  leaves  aromatic,  medicinal,  nutritive,  and 
stimulating. 

Biennial  hcrl),  duly. 

2.  F.  dulce  is  a  species  found  in  Italy  and 
used  for  food. 

Geography/.  —  The  geographical  range  of 
Foeniculum  is  the  middle  and  southern  parts 
of  the  north  temperate  zone. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Fanicu/um  is  from  the  Latin 
foemnn,  hay,  due  to  the  odor  of  fennel,  which 
is  that  of  new-mown  hay.  The  specific  name, 
vulgare,  means  "  common,"  and  dulce, "  sweet." 
Historij.  —  Indigenous  in  the  countries  of 
the  Levant,  carried  by  Europeans  to  Hindu- 
stan, and  brought  to  the  Atlantic  States  by 
colonists.  Cultivated  in  France,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  and  all  southern  Europe. 

Use. — The  medicinal  qualities  of  fennel 
are  carminative,  and  it  is  frequently  adminis- 
tered to  disguise  the  disagreea1)le  taste  of 
other  medicines.  It  is  used  in  Germanv  to 
flavor  bread  and  cakes.  The  leaves  and  the  root  of  F.  dulce  are  used  in 
southern  Europe  as  a  table  vegetable,  both  as  a  salad  and  cooked.  It  is  a 
favorite  vegetable  with  fisli.  In  former  days  it  had  the  reputation  of  curing 
all  sorts  of  poisons,  restoring  sight,  and  imparting  strength  to  the  body  The 
Roman  gladiators  mingled  the  seeds  witli  their  food,  and  wore  the  leaves  as 
crowns  of  victory 

An  essential  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed  by  distillation,  ealleu  Fennel  Oil. 


FcE.vicuLUM  VULGARE  (Fennel). 


FERULA,  L.  Calyx  entire,  or  oLsciirely  tootlu^d  ;  petals  broad- 
acuminate,  frequently  short  and  turned  in/  Disk  small,  stylopodium 
flattened.  Fruit  orbicular  or  ovate,  margined  ;  seeds  with  :]  lines 
along  the  back,  intervals  and  coinrnissure  grooved  or  channelled. 
Common  involucre  falling  off,  invohicels  many-leaved.  Radical  leaves 
decompound.     Flowers  yellow,  in  globose  umbellets. 

F.  narthex,  Boiss.  (Asafcetida.)  Stem  6  to  8  feet  in  height,  cylindrical, 
smooth,  solid,  and  furrowed.  Leaves,  at  the  root.  2  feet  long.  {)ipinnate. 
stem  leaves  numerous,  alternate,  lower  ones  bipinnate.  on  sheathing  petioles, 
sheaths  incre^asing  in  size  towards  the  nn'ddle  of  the  stem  and  deereasimr  from 
the  middle  upward. 

Flowers  polygamous,  staminate  tlowers  mn.h  smaller  than  the  others, 
crowded  into  dense  globular  nmbellets  ;  involucre  wanting.  Calvx  slightly 
striate.  Petals  oblong-oval  acute  and  entire,  pale  yellow,  unequal  in  the 
staminate  flowers.     Filamenis  as  long  as  the  petals ;"  .«;tyles  long  and  falling 


150  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

off.  Fruit  half  an  inch  long,  oval,  smooth,  yellowish.  The  root  which 
yields  the  gum  is  in  the  form  of  a  carrot,  and  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter. 
The  plant  dies  after  flowering,  but  sometimes  does  not  flower  until  the  third 
or  fourth  year. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  plants  whose  roots  fur- 
nish asafoetida  is  not  large ;  it  is  confined  to  middle  and  western  Asia.  It  has 
been  taken  to  England  and  to  Africa,  but  it  is  not  known  to  be  successful  in 
the  production  of  the  gum  outside  of  Asia.  It  has  been  found  in  the  Hima- 
laya mountains  at  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet. 

Etymology.  —  Ferula,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Latin  ferio,  strike, 
alluding  to  the  use  made  of  the  stem  as  a  rod  for  scourging,  employed  by 
schoolmasters,  Narthex  is  from  the  Greek  word,  vapQ-q^,  a  box  or  magazine 
to  contain  medicine,  alluding  to  the  medicine  stored  up  in  the  plant.  Accord- 
ing to  the  fabulous  history  of  the  doings  of 
the  gods,  Prometheus  used  a  stalk  of  this 
plant,  which  had  been  hollowed  out,  to  con- 
ceal the  sacred  fire  which  he  brought  down 
from  heaven,  hence  a  magazine  for  fire ;  it 
is  also  said  to  have  been  employed  to  make 
boxes  or  magazines  for  other  purposes. 
Asafoetida,  the  common  name,  is  from  the 
Arabic  aza,  gum,  and  the  Latin  word  foeti- 
dus,  fetid,  or  bad-smelling. 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  Perula  is 
Persia,  Afganistan,  the  Punjaub,  and  north- 
ern Hindustan.  When  its  products  were 
first  used  as  a  medicine,  or  as  a  condiment 
for  food,  is  not  known.  The  Greeks  and 
Ferula  narthex  (Asafoetida).  Romans  made  use  of  it ;    Dioscorides  and 

Pliny  both  speak  of  it.  The  plant  is  de- 
scribed in  the  books  of  the  Buddhists  as  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  Hima- 
layan forests. 

Preparation.  —  The  gum  is  the  dried  milky  juice  which  issues  from  the 
wounded  root  of  F.  narthex  and  other  species  of  the  genus.  There  seems  to 
be  good  authority  for  the  belief  that  most  of  the  asafoetida  is  from  the 
F.  narthex. 

To  obtain  it,  the  leaves  and  stalk  are  twisted  off.  The  earth  is  removed 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  root,  which  is  covered  to  protect  it  from  the  sun, 
and  left  for  forty  days,  when  it  is  exposed  and  the  crown  of  the  root  sliced  off. 
Two  days  later,  the  juice  which  is  deposited  upon  this  wound  is  removed, 
and  a  thin  slice  taken  off,  making  a  new  wound.  This  operation  goes  on 
from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  end  of  July,  when  the  root  is  exhausted  ; 
a  root  yields  from  half  an  ounce  to  two  pounds.  The  sap  of  the  first 
scrapings  is  thin,  and  to  make  it  more  easy  to  handle  it  is  mixed  with 
earth ;  therefore  the  gum  reaches  market  containing  much  earthy  impurity. 
The  gum,  when  hardened,  has  a  brownish  appearance,  and  in  cold  weather 
is  brittle. 

It  is  taken  to  Bombay  from  the  ports  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  it  reaches 
the  markets  of  the  world 

Use.  —  Asafoetida  contains  a  resin,  a  gum,  and  an  essential  oil.     The  odor 
resides  in  the  oil,  and  is  like  that  of  onions,  or  garlics,  accompanied  bvj«j 
separate  fetid  odor  which  is  very  offensive  when  the  drug  ,Ls  warmed.   tJMllP^^ 


UMBELLTFER^.. 


151 


Its  medicinal  qualities  are  storiiachir  and  antispasmodic;  it  is  administered 
in  hysteria,  hypochondria,  and  nervous  disorders.     The  tissues  of  the  human 
system  absorb  it  readily,  and  it  aft'ects  the  kidneys  with  great  activity. 
'  The  essential  oil  is  distilled  in  (rermany,  and  is  used  in  medicine  on  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

Asafcttida  is  used  in  India  as  a  condimr-nt  for  food  ;  it  was  also  employed 
by  the  Romans  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  peculiar  and  inimitable  Havor  of  the  celebrated  Worcestershire  sauce  is 
supposed  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  asafu^tida. 

PEUCEDANUM,  L.  Calyx  5-toothed,  or  obsolete  ;  petals  broad- 
lanceolate,  point  long  and  turned  in.  Fruit  flat,  oval,  with  a  broad 
margin.  Carpels  obscurely  5-ribbed,  secondary  ribs  wanting;  val- 
leys furnished  with  single  oil-vessels.  Flowers  yellow,  involucre  many 
or  few-leaved  or  absent ;  involucels  the  same.  Root  conical,  large,  and 
fleshy.     Biennial. 

P.  pastinaca,  L.  (Pastinaca  sativa,  L.)  (Parsnip.)  Stem  grooved,  tapering, 
hollow,  2  to  4  feet  high,  branching.  Root-leaves  of  the  first  year,  orbicular, 
cordate,  and  creuate. '  Stem  or  upper  leaves  of 
the  second  year,  compound  ;  leaflets  2  to  3  inches 
long,  cut,  toothed,  ovate,  and  obtuse,  in  3  to  4 
pairs,  with  a  terminal  one  which  is  3-lobed. 
Flowers  in  June.     Fruits  in  August  to  October. 

Note.  —  There  are  several  varieties;  a  great 
favorite  is  the  Guernsey,  which  is  an  improved 
form  of  the  common,  or  P.  pastinaca.  It  is  said 
that  in  the  island  of  Guernsey,  where  deep  culti- 
vation is  practiced,  the  root  reaches  the  length  of 
four  feet.  The  Student  has  come  into  favor,  and 
is  said  to  excel  all  others  in  its  sweet,  mild,  and 
pleasant  flavor. 

Geofjraphij. — The  parsnip  is  found  all  over 
Europe  .south  of  60  degrees  of  latitude,  .southern 
Greece,  ^yeste^n  Asia,  Hindustan,  and  Siani.  It 
.sows  its  seeds  easily,  and  escapes  from  gardens 
and  cultivated  grounds,  and  therefore  is  found 
growing  outside  of  cultivation  wherever  it  has 
been  cropped. 

Etipiiolofiij.  —  Pencedanum  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  invKt],  a  pine  tree,  and  Zav6s,  burnt,  a  burnt 
pine  tree,  due  to  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  parsnip. 
Pastinaca  is  by  some  authors  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  jHistinum,  a  dibble,  an  in.strnment  for 
digging  into  the  ground,  in  reference  to  the  deep 
piercing  of  the  ground  by  the  root  of  this  plant. 

By  others  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  pastus,  food,  fodtler.  pa.>*ture,  on 
account  of  the  edible  cliaracter  of  the  root,  and  its  use  for  feetling  stock. 
Sativa  is  Latin  for  "sown"  or  "planted."  The  common  name,  parsnip,  is 
sup])osed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  word  pastinnre,  to  dig  up.  hence 
something  dug  up. 

Uistori/. — The  home  of  the  jiarsnip  is  Europe 


Pkuckdanum  pastinaca 
(.Farsuip). 


It  was  cultivated  in  Britain 


152  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

in  early  times,  acd  eaten  with  salt  fish  during  Lent;  we  have  no  means  of 
knowing  when  or  where  it  was  first  used  for  food,  but  it  is  known  that  it  has 
been  in  use  a  long  time.  It  is  now  cultivated  largely  throughout  Europe  for  the 
table  and  for  feed  for  cattle  and  horses.  It  is  also  found  growing  in  a  state 
of  nature.  It  was  brought  to  eastern  North  America  by  British  colonists,  and 
carried  to  other  countries  by  emigrants  from  other  parts  of  Europe. 

Use.  — It  is  an  important  table  vegetable,  eaten  with  meats,  as  potatoes  are. 
It  is  prepared  by  simply  boiling,  or,  after  being  boiled,  it  is  sliced,  and  fried  in 
lard  or  butter,  or  mashed,  made  into  balls,  and  fried ;  it  is  also  stewed  with 
pork,  bacon,  or  other  meats.  It  is  extensively  raised  for  stock.  Horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  are  said  to  fatten  on  it  with  great  facility,  and  it  is  especially  val- 
uable for  milch  cows. 

CORIANDRUM,  Hoffm.  Calyx-teeth  conspicuous,  5  iu  number. 
Petals  obcordate,  turned  in  at  the  point,  outer  ones  radiate  and 
2-parted.  Fruit  globose,  smooth.  Carpels  cohering ;  5  primary  ribs 
depressed,  the  4  secondary  .ones  more  prominent;  seeds  concave  on 
their  faces.  Involucre  1-leaved  or  wanting.  Involucels  3-leaved, 
unilateral.     Annual. 

C  sativum,  L.  (Coriander.)  Stem  1  to  2  feet  high,  slender,  striate,  and 
branched  at  top.  Leaves  bipiunate,  Avith  deeply  cut,  wedge-shaped  segments 
below,  segments  of  the  upper  leaves  linear.  Ovary  inferior  and  globular,  with 
2  short  diverging  styles  ;  stigmas  flat  or  obtuse.  Stamens  5,  filaments  slen- 
der, anthers  roundish  and  yellow.  Petals  5,  white  or  purplish,  obcordate,  and 
turned  in  at  the  top,  outer  ones  2-parted.  Calyx  5-toothed ;  teeth  sharp  and 
unequal.  Umbels  terminal,  rather  small,  rays  5  to  8,  bracts  about  3  in  num- 
ber.    Flowers  iu  July. 

There  are  only  two  species  of  coriandrum.  The  C.  sativum,  however,  fur- 
nishes all  the  seeds  of  commerce. 

Geography .  — The  coriander  grows  well  in  subtropical  regions,  and  flourishes 
high  up  in  the  north  temperate  zone  It  is  foiuid  east  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the 
cultivated  fields  of  Tartary,  iu  Hindustan,  and  Burmah,  and  is  in  cultivation  in 
middle,  southern,  and  western  Europe.  It  was  brought  by  European  colonists 
to  North  America. 

FAijmologii.  — Coriandrum  is  from  the  Greek  Kopis,  a  bug,  due  to  the  disa- 
greeable odor  of  the  bruised  leaves.  Sativum  is  Latin  for  '•  sown  "  or  "  planted." 
Coriander,  the  popular  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  botanic  name. 

History. — The  home  of  this  plant  is  said  to  be  southwestern  Tartary,  but 
it  is  now  spread  over  western  Europe,  is  found  in  all  the  countries  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  has  made  its  way  to  the  gardens  of  North  America,  whence  it 
frequently  escapes  to  the  fields  and  roadsides  in  the  northern  and  middle 
United  States.  Theophrastus,  who  wrote  about  three  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  mentions  it,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  it  as  growing  both  in  Italy 
and  Africa  in  the  middle  of  the  first  century. 

Use.  — The  seeds  and  the  oil  of  the  coriander  are  used  for  flavoring  desert 
sauces,  confectionery,  cordials,  and  English  gin.  In  Germany  and  the  coun- 
tries of  northern  Europe  they  are  employed  as  a  condiment  in  both  bread  and 
cake.  The  ground  seeds  are  used  in  the  mixture  known  as  curry  powder,  and 
in  other  culinary  mixtures.  The  flavor  depends  upon  an  essential  oil  wh'ich  is 
obtained  from  the  seeds  by  distillation. 

Its  medicinal  properties  are  stimulant,  carminative,  sedative,  and  pectoral, 


UMBELLIFERiE. 


153 


and  it  is  frequently  administered  to  modify  the  griping  effects  of  active  purga- 
tives. It  was  formerly  prescribed  for  gout,  St.  Antlujuy's  fire,  and  that  class 
of  difficulties.  The  Mahometan  practitioners  prepare  from  the  seed  an  eye- 
wash which  they  believe  preserves  the  sight  in  small-p(jx 

CTTMINXIM,  L.  Calyx-teeth  bristle-like,  persistent,  the  outer  ones 
longer.  Petals  nearly  equal,  deeply  2-lobed,  white  or  rose  colored  ; 
style  short,  erect.  Umbels  stalked,  somewhat  irregular,  with  few  rays  ; 
general  involucre  composed  of  a  few  long,  spreading  and  deflexed, 
narrow,  stiff,  3-parted  or  entire  bracts ;  the  umbellets  with  2  to  4 
small  bracts.     Flowers  few  in  number.     Fruit  aromatic,  bitter. 

C.  cyminum,  L.  C.  sativum.  (Cumin.)  Stem  10  to  15  inches  high, 
branched,  cylindrical,  solid,  striate,  smooth ;  branches  spreading.  Leaves 
nearly  sessile  above,  longer 
stalked  below ;  stalks  flattened 
and  clasping,  blade  ternately 
divided  into  long,  entire,  acute 
segments,  smooth  and  pale 
green.  The  oil-vessels  small. 
Cultivated  annual.  The  only 
species  of  the  genus. 

Geography.  —  The  geographi- 
cal zone  of  this  plant  is  northern 
Africa,  middle  and  southern 
Europe,  and  extends  eastward 
through  Syria,  Hindustan,  Bom- 
bay, and  Burmah. 

Etymologi/.  —  Cuminum,  the 
generic  name,  is  from  the  Arabic 
Gamoun,  the  anrient  name  of  the 
plant,  of  obscure  signification. 
Cym'innm,  the  specific  name,  is 
a  variation  of  the  same  word, 
Cnm'tn  is  an  abridgment  of  the 
generic  name. 

History.  —  The  exact  home  of 
this  })lant  is  not  known ;  it  is  found  under  cultivation  in  southern  and  western 
Asia,  throughout  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  and  in  northern  Africa.  It  is 
sparingly  cultivated  through  middle  Europe,  and  fruits  as  far  north  as  south- 
ern Sweden.  Tt  is  no  doubt  the  plant  .spoken  of  in  Scripture  in  the  2.'^d  cliapter 
of  Matthew,  as  a  minor  crop  on  which  tithe  was  paid.  It  was  cultivated  in 
Asia  Minor  in  the  early  part  of  the  first  century,  and  is  mentioned  bv  Dios- 
corides.     The  bruised  seeds  emit  a  heavy,  disagreeable  odor. 

Use.  —  The  seeds  are  used  in  Germany  as  a  condiment  and  for  flavoring. 
and  the  Dutch  u.'^e  them  to  flavor  gin.  Their  medical  projiertios  are  carmina- 
tive, stomachic,  and  a.stringent,  and  they  furnish  a  favorite  medicine  among 
the  Hindus  for  dyspepsia  and  chronic  diarrha^a.  They  are  used  in  external 
applications  for  dis])ersing  swellings  and  allaying  pain  and  irritation.  At 
the  present  day  their  use  is  nearly  confined  to  veterinary  practice. 

The  medicinal  qualities  are  due  to  an  essential  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds 
by  distillation,  known  a.s  the  oil  of  cumin. 


CuMiNu.M  OYMiNTM  (Cumin). 


154 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


DAUCUS,  Tourn.  (Carrot.)  Calyx  5-toothed ;  petals  notched  at 
the  end,  with  point  turned  in,  the  two  outer  larger  and  deeply  cleft. 
Leaves  o-pinnate.  Fruit  oblong  ;  carpels  with  5  primary  bristly  ribs 
and  4  secondary,  the  latter  more  prominent,  winged,  and  divided  each 
into  a  row  of  prickles  having  a  single  oil-gland  beneath.  Flower 
envelope  pinnate.  Bracts  of  the  involucels  entire  or  3-cleft.  Fruit 
oblong-ovate,  bristly.     Biennial  herb. 

D.  carota,  L.  Var.  sativa.  (Garden  Carrot.)  Stem  rough,  2  to  3  feet 
high,  clothed  with   rough    hairs,  terete,  branched   from    below  the   middle 


Daucus  (Wild  Carrot). 


Daucus  carota  (Carrot). 


upwards.  Leaves  3-pinnate,  deep-green;  segments  linear,  pointed.  Flowers 
white  or  yellowish-white.  Root  fleshy,  fusiform  or  conical,  either  white-orange 
or  reddish-yellow. 

There  are  many  varieties  known  to  the  market  gardeners,  differing  from 
each  other  only  in  the  .size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  root,  which  is  a  valuable 
culinary  vegetable. 

Geography.  —  The  carrot  is  found  under  cultivation  in  the  British  isles,  all 
over  the  continent  of  Europe  south  of  60  degrees,  especially  in  France  and 
Germany,  in  northern  Africa,  southwestern  Asia,  China,  Japan,  and  many  of 
the  Pacific  islands ;  in  fact,  it  has  found  its  way  into  all  parts  of  the  world 
where  European  settlers  have  established  themselves  It  was  brought  to 
North  America  by  English  colonists,  where  it  has  run  wild  and  become  a 
pest. 


imbkllikkr^p:. 


156 


Etymology.  —  I)auc-us  is  from  the  (ireek.  word,  havKos,  a  carrot.  Carrot  is 
said  to  come  from  the  Celtic  word  k(ir,  red.  Sativa,  the  sj)ecific  name,  is 
Latin,  meaning  "  sown  "  or  "  cultivated." 

History.  —  When  or  where  the  carrot  wa.s  first  introduced  into  culinary  use 
is  not  known.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  at  least  three  hundred 
years  before  the  heginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

Use. — The  carrot  is  an  important  culinary  vegetable,  used  to  Havor  soups, 
sauces,  etc.,  and  is  eaten  with  meats ;  boiled  and  reduced  to  a  pulp  it  is  used 
for  pies  and  custards.  It  is  a  very  important  feed  for  horses  and  cattle,  and 
especially  for  milch  cows. 

CARUM,  L.  Flowers  hermaphrodite  or  polygamous.  Sepals  want- 
ing, or  very  small.  Petals  white,  o,  unequal,  dilated,  emarginate, 
sub-two-lobed  or  entire,  point  short,  sometimes  long  and  turned  in. 
Fruit  oval  or  oblong-ovoid,  compressed,  and  without  wings  ;  carpels 
5-ribbed,  lateral  ribs  marginal ;  umbels  perfect.  Leaves  pinnate. 
Biennial. 


I.  C.  petroselinum,  Willd.  (Parsley.)  Stem  angular  or  striate,  2  to  4  feet 
high,  branchetl.  Leaves  smooth  and  glabrous,  decompound,  parts  incised 
segments  of  the  lower 
ones  wedge  -  shaped, 
terminal  ones  trifid. 
Flowers  in  terminal 
and  axillary  umbels. 
Involucre,  a  single  lin- 
ear leaHet,  occasionally 
made  up  of  two  or 
more  bracts.  Petals 
roundish,  incurved, 
greenish.  Fruit  ovate. 
Carpels  ;)-ribl)ed. 
July. 

In  common  with  all 
plants  that  are  propa- 
gated from  seed,  pars- 
ley sports  freely,  hence 
cultivation  develops  vii- 
rieties.  Dwarf  Curled, 
Mitchell's  Matchless, 
Myatt's  Triple  Curled, 
Hamburg  Large-Rooted  and  Naples  or  Celery  Parsley,  are  the  most  prominent 

(Teo(]rnphy.  —  V^YAQ\  is  found  in  the  middle  and  .southern  edge  of  the  north 
temperate  zone,  and  grows  well  in  moderately  fertile  soil. 

Etymology. —  Cnrnm,  the  generic  name  of  the  parsley,  is  from  Caria,  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  it  was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  man.  Petroselinum, 
the  specific  name,  is  from  the  (ireek  TreVpa  a  rock,  and  a4\ivov,  parsley,  hence 
rock  parsley,  due  to  the  place  where  ii  grows,  —  among  the  rocks.  Pnrslei/, 
the  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  Petrosflimim 

Hislori/.  —  Viu-Aoy  is  found  wild  in  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Europe 
and  in  Asia  .Minor.    It  has  been  seen  in  .lapan  under  cnltivation,  and  is  common 


Caru.m  petroselinum  (Parsley). 


156  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

iu  the  gardens  throughout  middle  Europe  and  the  British  Islets ;  it  was  brought 
to  northeastern  America  by  English  colonists,  and  has  spread  over  the  whole 
country,  but  is  rarely  seen  outside  of  cultivation.  It  was  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  inhabitants  of  the  Levant  to  decorate  the  bridesmaids  at  the  marriage 
feast,  to  make  wreaths,  and  to  adorn  graves.  A  superstition  is  also  attached 
to  it  which  no  doubt  arose  from  its  connection  with  the  dead. 

Use.  —  Parsley  is  used  as  a  flavoring  herb  iu  soups,  sauces,  and  in  meat  and 
fish  stews.  To  garnish  meats,  fish,  and  salads,  there  is  perhaps  no  flavoring 
herb  more  widely  used. 

The  medicinal  properties  of  parsley,  as  well  as  its  flavoring  quality,  are  due 
to  an  active  principle  known  to  chemists  as  apiol.  This  substance  is  said  to 
have  the  same  effect  upon  the  human  syst&m  as  quinine,  and  was  formerly 
used  in  intermittent  fevers.  Infusions  of  the  roots  are  administered  as  a  cure 
for  fevers  and  affections  of  the  liver. 

2.  C.  Carui,  L.  (Caraway.)  Stem  smooth,  channeled,  branching,  3  feet 
in  height.  Leaves  smooth,  deep-green,  bipinnate,  cut;  segments  narrow, 
linear,  pointed.  Flowers  numerous,  in  terminal  umbels ;  involucre  com- 
posed of  narrow  leaflets,  sometimes  wanting ;  petals  5,  nearly  equal,  white  or 
pinkish  ;  filaments  slender,  rather  longer  than  the  petals ;  anthers  small, 
roundish ;  ovary  inferior,  bearing  short  capillary  styles  with  simple  stigmas. 
Seeds  two,  bent,  one  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  brown ;  striae  5,  the  mterspaces 
furrowed;  seed  ripens  at  the  end  of  the  second  season.  Root  fusiform  and 
edible. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  caraway  is  between  42°  and 
60°  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  it  is  said  by  A.  de  Candolle  to  be 
indigenous  in  a  belt  from  Lapland  to  Siberia.  It  grows  in  Great  Britain  and 
all  parts  of  the  continent  south  of  60°.  It  is  also  found  in  northern  Africa, 
Hindustan,  and  Burmah. 

Etymology.  —  Carui  is  derived  from  carum,  whose  etymology  is  given  under 
parsley. 

Histoni.  —  Mention  was  made  of  the  caraway  in  an  account  of  Morocco  in 
the  twelfth  century.  In  the  fourteenth  century  a  custom  of  eating  caraway 
seeds  with  apples  had  been  established  in  England.  To  this  custom  Shake- 
speare refers  in  Henry  IV.,  Part  II.,  Act  V.,  Sc.  3,  where  Shallow  addres.ses 
Silence  :  "  Nay,  you  shall  see  mine  orchard,  where,  in  an  arbor,  we  will  eat  a 
last  year's  pippin  of  my  own  graflfing,  with  a  dish  of  caraways,  and  so  forth." 
The  custom  of  eating  baked  apples  with  caraway  seeds  is  still  kept  up  at  one 
of  the  colleges  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  England,  and  at  the  ceremo- 
nial feasts  of  some  of  the  London  livery  companies. 

Pliny  makes  Caria  the  home  of  the  caraway  ;  if  so,  it  must  have  spread 
rapidly,  for  it  is  growing  in  most  parts  of  Europe  without  cultivation.  It  is 
common  in  the  gardens  of  northeast  America,  and  is  frequently  found  outside 
of  cultivation. 

Use.  —  The  root  of  the  caraway  plant  is  eaten  as  a  table  vegetable  in  the 
north  of  Europe.  The  seeds  are  employed  to  flavor  bread,  cake,  confectionery, 
pastry,  and  cheese;  and  in  Russia,  Sweden,  Germany,  and  in  parts  of  the 
United  States,  to  flavor  alcoholic  cordials. 

An  essential  oil  (oil  of  caraway)  is  procured  from  the  seed  by  distillation, 
large  quantities  of  which  are  made  in  Leipzig.  As  a  medicine,  it  is  aromatic 
and  stimulant,  and  much  used  to  disguise  the  unpleasant  taste  of  other  drugs. 
Manufacturers  of  fancy  soap  use  it  in  large  quantities. 


RUBIACE^. 


157 


Ordkk  XXIX.     RUBIACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  rarely  unisexual,  sometimes  defective,  but  usually 
regular.  Calyx  superior,  tubular,  2-G-toothed,  or  wanting.  Corolla 
superior  ;  petals  united  ;  limb  4— C-toothed  or  lobed  ;  segments  valvate 
in  the  bud.  Stamens,  4-G  inserted  on  the  tube  of  the  corolla.  Ovary 
inferior.  Style  simple,  bifid  or  multifid  ;  stigmas  at  top  or  sides ; 
ovules,  1  or  more  in  a  cell.  Fruit  a  capsule,  berry,  or  drupe.  Seeds 
in  various  positions.  Leaves  opposite  and  stipulate  or  whorled,  simple, 
entire.     Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs. 

Number  of  genera,  337. 

CINCHONA,  L.     Calyx  cup-shaped,  5-toothed  ;  corolla  tubular,  limb 
5-parted  ;  stamens  5-epipetalous  ;   anthers  2-celied ;   pistil  divided  at 
top  ;    capsule    2-celled,     many-seeded, 
opening   at  the  base.     Fruit  winged. 
Trees. 

1.  C.  officinalis,  L.  (Peruvian  Bark; 
Jesuit's  Bark.)  Trunk  40  to  50  feet  high, 
and  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter;  branches 
stout.  Leaves  opposite,  elliptical,  entire, 
and  nerved,  smooth  on  the  upper  side,  hairy 
heneath ;  petioles  short.  Flowers  ])anicled; 
calyx  campanulate,  margin  5-toothed ;  co- 
rolla tubular,  spreading  at  the  throat,  and 
divided  into  5  segments ;  edges  serrate ; 
stamens  5  ;  corolla  downy  on  outside. 

2.  C.  calisaya,  Wedd.  (Calisaya  or  Yel- 
low Cinchona  Hark.)  Trunk  50  to  100 
feet  in  height,  and  5  feet  in  circumference. 
Leaves  oblong  and  obtu.se,  varying  in  size 
and  sliape,  3  to  6  inches  long.  Flowers  in 
pyramidal  panicles,  pink.  Fruit  in  ovate 
capsules,  2-celled  ;  seeds  winged. 

3.  C.  micrantha.  Wedd.    Trunk  30  to  40 

feet  in  heiglit,  and  from  10  to  15  inches  in  diameter.  Leaves  from  4  to  12 
inches  long,  and  2  to  6  inches  wide,  oblong,  smooth,  and  shining  above,  pitted 
beneath  at  the  axils  of  the  veins.     Flowers  small,  in  loose,  leatless  panicles. 

4.  C.  succirubra,  Pavon.  (Red  Cinchona  Bark.)  Trunk  from  60  to  80  feet 
high.  Leaves  broad,  oval,  12  inches  long,  glabrous  above,  pubc-^cent  beneath. 
Flowers,  in  large  terminal  panicles,  rose-colored ;  seed-vessels  an  inch  in 
length.  Sap  and  wood  red.  Western  slope  of  the  Andes,  near  the  pcjuator, 
three  to  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

Species. — There  are  tliirty-six  well  marked  species  of  cinchona,  and  nu- 
merous varieties,  all  natives  of  the  Andes.  Those  described  here  furnish  the 
barks  of  the  shops  of  tlie  Ignited  States  and  Great  Britain  ;  but  the  trees  that 
furnish  the  materials  for  the  production  of  quinine  are  the  C.  Pitayensis, 
C.  coniifolia,  C.  laucifolia,  and  other  species  which  grow  in  the  United  States 


Cinchona  officinalis 
(Peruvian  Bark). 


158  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

of  Colombia.     The  barks  of  these  species  are  admitted  into  market  only  when 
they  yield  two  per  cent,  or  over,  of  alkaloids. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  home  of  the  cinchona  is  in  the  tropical 
Andes,  extending  from  10°  north  to  20°  south  latitude,  a  region  about  two 
thousand  miles  long,  mostly  on  the  eastern  slopes,  in  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador, 
New  Granada,  and  Venezuela,  from  5,000  to  1 1 ,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  the  best  barks  are  produced  where  the  temperature  ranges  from  54°  to 
68°  Fahrenheit.  The  minimum  height  for  the  best  barks  is  not  below  5,000 
feet.  It  grows  well  in  similar  heights  and  temperatures  in  India,  where  it 
has  been  introduced  and  is  under  successful  cultivation.  It  is  also  cultivated 
in  Ceylon  and  in  Jamaica. 

Etymologij.  —  The  generic  name  cinchona  Avas  given  to  this  plant  by 
Linngeus,  to  honor  the  Countess  of  Chinchon,  who  while  residing  in  Lima  was 
cured  of  a  fever  by  the  use  of  the  bark.  The  specific  names  are  derived  as 
follows :  Officinalis  signifies  "  useful,"  or  "  of  the  shops,"  and  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  officina,  a  shop.  Micrantha  is  from  the  Greek  word 
IxLKpbs,  small,  alluding  to  the  size  of  the  flower  of  this  species.  Calisaya, 
which  produces  the  "yellow  bark"  of  commerce,  has  a  history  which  is 
somewhat  obscure.  Markham  gives  the  following  derivations:  1st,  from 
calla,  a  remedy,  and  sa/la,  rocky,  meaning  a  medicine  growing  among  the 
rocks.  2d,  from  ceali,  strong,  and  sayay,  become,  meaning  a  medicine  that 
will  strengthen  the  patient.  3d.  In  Caravaya  is  a  family  of  caciques,  by  the 
name  of  Calisaya,  one  of  whom  distinguished  himself  in  the  revolt  of  1780- 
1781,  and  it  is  suggested  that  this  species  was  named  to  honor  him.  Succi 
rubra  is  from  succus,  juice,  aud  rubra,  red;  hence,  red-barked  cinchona. 

History.  —  It  is  stated  upon  good  authority  that  the  aborigines  were  not 
acquainted  with  its  medicinal  properties  before  the  country  was  visited  by 
Europeans.     Humboldt  states  that  it  is  not  upon  the  list  of  native  remedies. 

There  is  a  story  as  follows :  A  savage  was  taken  ill  with  a  fever  in  the 
forest,  near  a  pool  of  water,  into  which  a  number  of  cinchona  trees  had  fallen, 
whereby  the  water  had  been  made  bitter.  He  was  offered  some  of  this  water, 
as  no  other  could  be  procured,  and  drinking,  was  speedily  cured.  Thus  the 
curative  qualities  of  the  bark  were  revealed. 

In  1638  Ana  de  Osoria,  wife  of  the  fourth  count  of  Chinchon,  viceroy  of 
Peru,  lay  dangerously  ill  with  a  tertian  fever  at  Lima.  When  accounts  of  her 
sickness  reached  Don  Francisco  Lopez  de  Canizares  Corregidor  of  Loxa,  he 
sent  the  bark  to  her  physician,  Don  Juan  de  Vega,  who  administered  it  to  his 
patient,  aud  thereby  effected  a  speedy  cure. 

The  countess  was  so  grateful  for  her  recovery  that  she  determined,  on  hei 
return  to  Europe,  two  years  later,  to  take  with  her  a  quantity  of  the  powdered 
bark,  to  be  administered  to  the  sufferers  from  chills  and  fever  upon  her  hus 
band's  estate.  From  this  circumstance  it  was  called  Countess  Powder,  and  foi 
a  long  time  retained  that  name.  De  Vega,  on  returning  to  Spain,  carried  with 
him  large  quantities,  which  he  sold  in  Seville  at  100  reals  a  pound.  Linnseus 
to  honor  the  countess,  named  the  tree  cinchona,  which  was  intended  to  bt 
''Chinchon,"  and  the  error  in  spelling  has  never  been  corrected. 

Another  account  relates  that  it  was  made  known  to  the  civilized  worla 
through  a  monk,  who,  lying  at  the  point  of  death  with  a  fever,  received  &, 
decoction  of  the  bark  from  the  hands  of  a  native  medicine  man,  and  was  cured. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  both  these  accounts  are  correct,  aud  that  the  circum- 
stances occurred  as  stated.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  tropical  Andes,  on  a 
chain  of  mountains  in  Peru. 


RTJBIACE^..  159 

The  history  of  the  cinchona  wouUl  bo  defective  without  some  account  of  its 
introcluctiou  into  India.  In  1839,  Dr  Royle,  the  English  East  India  botanist, 
drew  the  attention  of  the  home  government  to  the  importance  of  providing  a 
febrifuge  for  medical  practice  among  the  natives,  and  advocated  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cinchona  into   India. 

In  1859  the  liritish  government  sent  an  expedition  to  South  America  to 
procure  seeds  and  plants  of  all  the  species  possessing  commercial  value.  The 
party  encountered  great  dithculty  and  endured  great  hardships,  but  secured 
seeds  and  living  plants,  which  were  taken  to  England  and  sent  to  India,  where 
suitable  localities  in  the  mountains  were  selected,  and  a  successful  plantation 
was  commenced.  Previous  to  this,  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  had  .sent 
an  agent  to  South  America  who  had  procured  seeds,  but  when  the  trees  came 
to  maturity,  they  proved  to  be  worthless.  Those  taken  to  India  and  Ceylon 
were  very  productive,  and  they  far  exceed  in  value  the  trees  in  a  native 
state. 

In  1878  a  German  company  established  a  plantation  in  Bolivia,  where  there 
are  now  about  10,000,000  trees  under  cultivation.  Though  only  a  little  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  has  ela])sed  since  the  first  plantations  were  com- 
menced, the  barks  which  supply  the  markets  of  the  world  are  nearly  all  from 
cultivated  trees. 

Chemistry.  — The  cinchona  barks  yield  to  the  chemist  a  number  of  alkaloids, 
the  principal  of  Avhich  are  the  following  :  — 

Quinia,  Coq,  H24,  No,  (\. 

Cinchona,  C^o,  H.24,  N.,,  O. 

The  lowest  per  cent  of  alkaloids  in  the  barks  of  commerce  is  2,  and  the 
highest  13^.  This  high  per  cent  is  obtained  from  the  C.  officinalis,  var.  lan- 
ceolata,  under  cultivation ^  9  per  cent  of  the  13|  is  Quinia. 

Quinia  and  Cinchonia  were  discovered  in  1820  by  the  chemists  Pelletier  and 
Caventon,  who  secured  the  prize  of  10,000  francs  offered  by  the  French 
Academy  of  Science. 

Preparation.  —  The  mode  of  collecting  the  bark  is  to  cut  down  the  tree,  and 
then  strip  the  bark,  after  which  it  is  dried  in  the  sun  and  sewn  up  in  green 
ox-hides,  and  exported  in  large  bundles  or  packages. 

This  wa.«;teful  mode  of  collecting  the  bark  is  not  practiced  upon  the  trees 
planted  in  India,  but  alternate  strips  are  removed  ;  the  wounds  are  then  bound 
up,  and  when  properly  healed  the  other  spaces  are  stripped,  by  which  means 
the  tree  is  indefinitely  preserved.  Trees  under  cultivation  yield  barks  far 
richer  in  alkaloids,  and  the  successive  new  layers  of  bark  are  more  and  more 
highly  charged  with  the  valuable  products. 

Use.  — The  sulistances  yielded  by  the  cinchona  barks  are  ])OAverfully  tonic, 
antiseptic,  and  antiperiodic,  and  the  bark  itself  as  a  whole  is  highly  astringent. 
Quinine,  the  sulphate  of  quinia,  contains  the  properties  of  the  bark  in  the 
most  concentrated  form. 

No  substance  in  the  materia  medica  is  of  such  importance  in  the  healing 
art  where  malarial  and  intermittent  fevers  prevail.  Though  it  is  a  specific 
as  a  febrifuge,  it  is  administered  in  all  complaints  that  attack  the  system  at 
intervals,  as  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  etc. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  .-solution  of  quinine  in  20.000  jtarts  of  water  will 
destroy  bacteria.  It  is  believed  that  malarial  fevers  are  due  to  the  direct 
introduction  into  the  blood  of  living  organisms.  Quinine  is  suppo.*;ed  either 
to  destrov  these  organisms  or  to  render  the  condition  of  the  blood  unfavorable 
to  their  development. 


160  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

COFFEA,  L.  (Coffee.)  Calyx,  tubular,  5-toothed  ;  corolla  funnel- 
shaped,  separated  at  the  crown  into  5  reflexed  lanceolate  divisions ; 
stamens  5  in  number ;  anthers  oblong  ;  style,  with  2  stigmas  ;  ovary 
2-celled.     Shrubs. 

1.  C.  Arabica,  Alpiuus.  Stem  10  to  15  feet  iu  height,  and  2  to  4  inches  in 
diameter,  diffusely  branched ;  branches  slender  and  drooping ;  bark  greenish- 
brown.  Leaves  elliptical-lanceolate,  entire,  crenate  or  wavy,  3  to  5  inches 
long,  on  short  foot-stalks,  opposite  and  evergreen.  Flowers  white,  in  axillary 
small,  nearly  sessile,  clusters.  Fruit,  a  dark-red  berry,  in  form  of  a  cherry, 
with  a  glutinous,  tasteless  pulp  inclosing  2  plano-convex  seeds  about  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  two  eighths  wide,  a  groove  extending  along  the 
longer  axis  of  the  plane  side. 

2.  C.  occidentalis  is  no  doubt  a  variety  of  C.  Arabica,  from  which  have 
arisen  most  of  the  varieties  which  are  known  in  South  America. 

Like  all  plants  grown  from  the  seed,  coffee  sports  freely,  hence  we  have 
many  species,  among  which  the  following  are  well  marked  and  constant. 

Growing  in  Brazil :  — 

3.  C.  Australis.  7.  C.  jasminoides.  11.  C.  meridionalis. 

4.  C.  nodosa.  8.  C.  parvifolia.  12.  C.  stipulacea. 

5.  C.  biflora.  9.  C,  magnolifolia.  13.  C.  minor. 

6.  C.  paguiodes.  10.  C.  sessilis.  14.  C.  truncata. 

Growing  in  the  East  Indies  are  four  species ;  — 

15.  C.  semiexserta.  17.  C.  tetrandra. 

16.  C.  Travancorensis.  18.   C.  Wightiana. 
Three  species  are  cultivated  in  Mexico  :  — 

19.  C.  Mexicana.        20.  C.  obovata.  21.  C.  rosea. 

In  New  Granada  there  is  one  species  :  — 

22.  C.  spicata. 

The  following  species  grow  in  Peru ;  — 

23.  C.  nitida.  26.  C.  umbellata.  29.  C.  ciliata. 

24.  C.  racemosa.         27.  C.  verticillata.  30.  C.  acuminata. 

25.  C.  subsessilis.       28.  C.  longifolia. 

In  Java  there  are  two  prevailing  species  under  cultivation  .-  — 

31.  C.  densiflora. 

32.  C.  Indica. 

In  the  Molucca  isles  one  single  species  prevails :  — 

33.  C.  pedunculata. 

In  the  Sandwich  Islands  two  species  are  cultivated  :  — 

34.  C.  Chamissonis. 

35.  C.  kaduana. 

In  Arabia  and  Abyssinia  the  C.  Arabica  prevails,  and  is  very  constant.  On 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  two  species  are  cultivated :  C.  laurina,  and 
C.  Liberica ;  while  on  the  eastern  coast  the  C.  Mozambicana  and  the  C.  Zan- 
guebarica  are  grown. 

Geography.  —  Coffee  will  grow  and  ripen  its  fruit  in  all  regions  of  no  frost 
and  is  grown  in  all  tropical  and  subtropical  countries.     The  market  is  largely 


RUBIACE^. 


161 


snpplieil  from  Soutli  America  and  the  East  India  islands.  The  principal  coffee- 
growing  regions  are  Brazil,  (iuatemala,  Cul)a,  British  West  Indies,  St.  Do- 
mingo, Java,  Padang,  Sumatra,  Maccassar,  Ceylon,  British  India,  and  Manilla. 

Etymology.  —  Coffee  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  Turkish 
qaveh,  a  decoction  of  berries.  The  common  name  is  a  corruption  of  the 
botanic  name.  The  specific  name  of  the  princijjal  species  comes  from  Arabia, 
where  it  was  first  used. 

History.  —  Persia,  the  home  of  delicious  fruits,  seems  to  have  given  birth 
to  coffee.  Thence  sometime  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  carried  by  Magal- 
leddin  Mufti  of  Aden  into  Arabia  Felix,  where  it  was  first  used,  not  as  a 
beverage,  but  for  medicinal  purposes. 

Coffee  was  not  known  in  commerce  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
w^hen  it  became  an  article  of  trade  in  the 
markets  of  Constantinople. 

The  government  of  Syria  forbade  its  use, 
ostensibly  because  of  its  intoxicating  quali- 
ties. After  its  introduction  into  Constanti- 
nople, the  Mohammedan  priests  complained 
that  the  mosques  were  neglected,  while  the 
coffee-houses  were  thronged.  The  govern- 
ment interfered  and  forbade  its  sale,  and  a 
strict  police  espionage  was  instituted ;  but 
as  it  was  found  impossible  to  suppress  its 
sale,  the  state  levied  an  excise  tax  on  it, 
and  thus  reaped  a  large  income  from  it. 

Coffee  is  consumed  in  Turkey  in  large 
quantities.  There  was  a  time  w^hen  it  was 
regarded  as  so  necessary  to  the  people  that 

it  became  one  of  the  legal  causes  for  divorce  when  a  man  refused  to  furnish 
his  wife  with  coffee. 

Thougli  the  coffee  tree  in  cultivation  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  to 
Arabia  from  Persia,  yet  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  i.s  indigenous 
in  Arabia  Felix,  and  in  Africa,  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Bed  Sea.  Kan- 
wolfins  took  it  into  Europe  in  1573  ;  hut  its  introduction  is  traced  also  to  the 
Dutch,  who  procured  berries  at  Mocha,  which  were  planted  at  Batavia.  In 
1690,  a  plant  was  sent  to  Amsterdam,  which  was  planted  and  bore  fruit  (under 
glass).  'I'he  seeds  of  this  fruit  were  then  planted,  and  many  young  trees  were 
produced  therefrom.  These  trees  were  sent  to  the  gardens  in  the  Dutch  pos- 
sessions in  the  East  Indies,  and  some  of  the  plants  were  presented  to  Louis 
XIV,  by  the  Dutch  authorities  ;  these  were  placed  under  the  charge  of  Jussieu, 
by  whom  young  plants  were  sent  to  the  French  West  Indies,  whence  the  coffee- 
tree  has  spread,  not  only  throughout  the  islands,  but  to  the  continent  of  South 
America. 

All  the  coffee  grown  in  the  new  world  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  a  single 
plant  which  a  French  naval  officer  carried  to  Martini(|ue  in  1720,  depriving 
himself  of  water  when  parching  with  thirst  in  order  to  nourish  his  coffee-plant. 
From  this  tree,  it  is  said,  all  the  American  troj)ical  colonies  obtained  their 
.seed,  which  has  nuiltijdiod  to  such  an  extent  that  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  the 
West  Indies  jiroduce  as  much  coffee  as  Java  and  Ceylon. 

It  is  not  known  when  coffee  came  into  use  in  western  Europe  as  a  bev- 
erage.     The   Venetians,  who  traded  with  the  East,  no  doubt  first  used  it 
Pk.  Fl.  — 12 


CoFFEA  (Coffee). 


162  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

It  was  not  known  in  Italy  in  1615.  In  1645,  some  men  returning  home 
from  Constantinople  to  Marseilles  took  with  them  a  supply  of  coffee,  with 
suitable  vessels  for  preparing  it  for  the  table;  it  was  thus  introduced  into 
France.  About  twenty  years  later  a  house  was  opened  at  Marseilles  for  the 
sale  of  coffee. 

In  1671  the  first  coffee-house  was  established  at  Paris.  Other  places  were 
soon  opened  for  its  sale,  but  upon  a  very  humble  scale,  and  fashionable  people 
did  not  resort  to  them.  Some  Prenchmeu,  shrewdly  guessing  the  reason  for 
a  want  of  genteel  patronage,  fitted  up  a  coffee-house  in  a  liberal  and  elegant 
style,  to  which  well-bred  people  were  attracted.  About  the  same  time  a  suc- 
cessful coffee-house  was  opened  at  London. 

Nieber,  in  his  account  of  coffee,  maintains  that  it  was  grown  upon  the  hills 
of  Yemen  in  Arabia,  introduced  from  Abyssinia  by  the  Arabs,  long  before  it 
was  used  by  Europeans. 

Chemistry.  —  Coffee  yields  to  chemical  analysis  the  same  substances  that  are 
found  ill  tea,  though  in  different  quantities ,  hence  the  effects  upon  the  nerves 
and  the  circulation  are  similar  to  those  produced  by  tea. 

In  100  parts  of  tea  in  a  dry  state  there  is  one  part  of  thein ;  in  the  same 
quantity  of  coffee  there  is  only  one  half  as  much.  Of  nitrogenous  substances, 
there  are  in  tea  25  parts,  in  coffee,  13  ;  but  of  essential  oil,  tea  has  about  f  of 
1  per  cent,  while  coffee  has  only  yf  ^  of  1  per  cent. 

Tea  has  12  parts  of  tannic  acid,  coffee  has  5|.  Potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
oxide  of  iron  are  found  in  both  in  nearly  equal  quantities,  amounting  to  about 
five  per  cent. 

Preparation.  —  Coffee  is  prepared  by  first  browning  it  over  a  gentle  heat, 
called  burning  or  roasting ;  it  is  then  crushed  or  ground  ;  hot  water  is  applied 
to  it  and  kept  at  the  boiling-point  for  a  short  time ;  some  substance  is  then 
mixed  with  it  to  precipitate  the  grounds  or  powdered  coffee  held  in  suspen- 
sion ;  after  Avhich,  the  liquor  is  poured  into  cups,  and  milk  and  sugar  are 
added  to  suit  the  taste. 

Use. — In  most  families  it  is  used  for  breakfast,  and  for  dinner.  It  is  so 
well  known  that  further  description  is  not  necessary. 

Statistics.  —  No  other  warm  dietetic  beverage  is  so  largely  used  as  coffee. 
It  is  the  daily  drink  of  more  than  100,000,000  people  We  have  no  means 
of  knowing  the  actual  consumption  in  Turkey  and  Africa,  but  the  tables  of 
import  show  the  consumption  in  other  countries,  m  the  several  coffee- 
drinking  countries  the  consumption  is  as  follows :  — 

In  the  United  States  of  North  America,  400,000,000  of  pounds  are  annually 
consumed,  which  is  equal  to  8  pounds  for  every  man,  Avomau,  and  child.  The 
amount  used  in  Holland  is  equal  to  21  pounds  for  each  person.  In  Belgium 
and  Denmark  the  consumption  is  equal  to  13  pounds  for  a  person ;  in  Norway, 
10  pounds;  in  Switzerland,  7  ;  and  in  Sweden,  6.  These  are  the  great  coffee- 
drinking  peoples  of  Europe  and  America.  In  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain, 
a  greater  amount  of  tea  is  used  than  in  any  other  nation,  amounting  to  about 
4  pounds  for  each  individual ;  the  amount  of  coffee  consumed  is  only  one 
pound  to  each  person. 

CEPHAELIS,  Swartz.  Calyx  bell-shaped,  toothed  ;  corolla  tubular, 
inflated  at  throat,  5-parted ;  stamens  5  ;  stigmas  2-parted.  Flowers 
crowded  into  a  head,  inclosed  in  a  5-leaved  envelope.  Berry  2-seeded. 
Shrub. 


Rl^BIAPE^.. 


163 


C.  Ipecacuanha,  Kiclianl.  (Ij)e('ac.)  Stem  pubescent  at  top,  18  to  24  inches 
high;  root  4  to  ♦)  inches  long,  about  the  size  of  a  g(j(jse-(|uill.  Leaves,  about 
6  in  number,  opposite,  petioled,  obhjng-obovate,  acute,  entire,  4  to  6  inches 
long,  1  to  2  wide,  rougli  above,  downy  and  veined  beneath;  stipules  clasj)ing. 
membranous  at  l)ase,  split  above  into  numerous  bristle-like  divisions,  falling. 
Flowers,  8  to  10,  small,  white,  each  with  a  green  Ijract,  forming  a  little  head 
on  an  axillary  foot-stalk,  and  indoseil  by  a  1-leaved  involucre,  cut  into  4  or  G 
segments.  Fruit,  an  ovate,  purple  berry,  becoming  black ;  seeds  small,  ]>lano- 
convex,  2  in  number. 

Geography.  — The  cephaelis  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plant,  and  flourishes 
in  rich,  damp  woods. 

Eti/niologi/.  —  Cephaelis  is  from  KecpaXri,  Greek  for  "  head,"  alluding  to  the 
form  of  inflorescence.  Ipecacuanha  is  from  the  Brazilian  ipecaayuen,  road- 
side, sick-making  plant, 

Historij.  —  This  drug  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  into  the  ma- 
teria medica  by  .John  Helvetius, 
a  Dutch  physician  practicing  in 
Paris.  He  fir.«t  used  it  as  a  secret 
remedy  in  dysentery,  and  was  in- 
duced by  Louis  XI Y.  to  reveal  his 
secret,  for  which  the  sum  of  2r),0(U) 
francs  was  aAvarded  him.  Tlie 
home  of  the  Cephaelis  is  the  damj), 
rich  woods  of  the  valley  of  the 
Amazon.  It  is  found  in  Bolivia 
and  Colombia,  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  "West  Indies  and 
Hindustan,  and  is  under  success- 
ful cultivation  in  India. 

The  American  ipecacuanha  is 
the  root  of  the  Ku])liorbia  Ipecac- 
uanha; it  has  a  local  reputation  as 
an  emetic,  and  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  substitute  for  the  South  American  drug. 

Cliemistrj/.  —  The  active  principle  of  i])ecac  is  emetine,  of  which  it  contains 
less  than  1  per  cent.  Pelletier  discovered,  or  rather  isolated,  it  in  1817,  and 
found  it  to  bo  an  alkaloid. 

Use.  —  The  medical  jjvoperties  are  astringent,  dia])horctic,  expectorant,  and 
emetic.  The  active  principle  is  largely  in  the  bark  of  the  root,  though  the 
woody  part  of  the  root  also  possesses  it. 

It  forms,  in  combination  with  oj)ium,  the  wel]-km)wn  Dover's  j)owders.  It 
is  an  important  medicine  in  dysentery,  and  is  an  ingredient  in  most  cough 
medicines. 


Cephaelis  Ipkcacuanha  (Ipecac 


RUBIA,  Toiirn.  (Mndder.)  Cal^-x-tubp  eg^-shap^d,  ;>-toothe(l ;  corolla 
rotate,  .Vpart.^l  ;  stamens  5,  sliort,  2  .styles,  united  at  tlie  ha.se.  Fruit  in 
twos,  berry-like,  sinootli  and  subglobular.  Perennial,  herbaceous,  does 
not  flower  until  the  third  year. 


1.  R.  tinctorum, 
turned  })ackwar(ls. 


L.     Stem  weak,   4-angled,   angles   armed    with    prickles 
.r  downwards,  trailing  or  climbing.     Leaves  in  whorls  of 


164 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


6,  lanceolate,  margins  and  midribs  aculeate;  flower-stalk  axillary  or  ter- 
minal, trifid.  Flowers,  brownish-yellow.  Root  consists  of  many  long  prickly 
shoots  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  3  to  4  feet  long,  descending  deep  into  the 
ground,  all  united  near  the  surface  in  a  sort  of  head. 

2.  R.  Chiliensis  is  used  as  a  dye  in  South  America. 

3.  R.  cordifolia,  a  native  of  Persia,  is  largely  used  in  Hindustan,  both  as  a 
dye  and  as  an  article  of  medicine.  Other  species  are  used  for  dyes  in  the 
countries  where  they  grow. 

Geography.  —  Its  geographical  range  is  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of 
the  north  temperate  zone.  It  is  indigenous  to  western  Asia  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  of  eastern  Europe.  It  is  cultivated  successfully  in  Hindustan, 
China,  Japan,  and  Northern  Africa,  Turkey,  Greece,  Spain,  Prance,  Germany, 
and  Holland,  and  in  the  middle  and  central  United  Stgjtes  of  North  America. 

It  has  been  cultivated  for  market  in  Ohio 
and  Delaware.  It  is  shipped  to  England 
from  the  ports  of  India  and  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean,  and  thence  to  America. 

Etymology.  —  Riibia  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  ruber,  red,  from  the  color  of  its 
root.  Tinctorum  is  from  the  Latin  word 
tinctor,  a  colorer.  Chiliensis  is  derived 
from  Chile,  the  home  of  this  species.  Cordi- 
folia, from  the  Latin,  refers  to  the  heart- 
shaped  leaves.  Madder  is  derived  from  the 
Sanscrit  madhura,  sweet,  or  tender,  alluding 
to  the  character  of  the  root. 

History.  —  The  madder  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  it  is  believed  that  some  of  the 
cloths  in  which  the  mummies  were  rolled 
were  colored  with  madder.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  important  dyes  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans. 

Preparation.  —  The  long,  slender  roots  are 
dug  when  the  plant  is  three  years  old,  and 
when  dry  are  about  the  thickness  of  a  goose- 
quill,  and  of  a  deep  red  color.  The  method  of  preparation  is  to  grind  the 
root  and  wash  it  with  water,  which  takes  out  the  inert  matter,  among  Avhich 
is  sugar.  Straining  through  woollen  cloth  leaves  the  bruised  root  upon  the 
cloth  ;  the  root  is  then  dried  and  reground.  The  liquor  is  preserved  in  vats 
and  allowed  to  ferment,  after  which  it  is  distilled,  and  yields  a  quart  of 
alcohol  for  every  100  pounds  of  root. 

Use.  —  Madder  is  used  for  a  dye,  especially  in  the  printing  of  muslins.  The 
fine  Turkey  red  is  produced  by  madder.  By  the  use  of  chemicals,  every  shade 
of  red,  purple,  lilac,  and  rose-color  can  be  obtained  from  the  madder-root. 
The  color  is  suspended  both  by  alcohol  and  by  water.  As  a  medicine,  it  ex- 
cites the  secretory  organs,  and  especially  the  kidneys.  When  fed  to  cattle,  it 
enters  into  the  milk  and  other  fluids  of  the  body,  and  even  colors  the  bones. 

The  Alizarine  of  the  shops  is  artificial,  and  is  a  derivative  of  anthracine,  a 
coal-oil  product.  Since  its  introduction,  the  cultivation  of  madder  has  almost 
ceased;  over  a  million  acres  of  madder  land  have  gone  out  of  cultivation  in 
France  alone. 


RuBiA  TINCTORUM  (Madder). 


COMPOSITE.  165 


Ordeu   XXX.     COMPOSITE. 

Flowers  in  close  heads,  polygamous,  monoecioiis.  The  central 
flowers  ill  a  iiead  are  called  the  disk ;  the  iiiarginal  flowers,  il'  of  dif- 
ferent shape  from  the  disk,  form  the  rai/.  Flower  heads  each  on  a 
common  rece})tacle,  inclosed  by  an  involucre  of  scale-like  bracts ; 
the  whole  head  resembling  a  flower,  and  the  involucre  like  its  caljTC ; 
each  of  the  proper  flowers  (termed  Jiorets)  having  the  calyx  adher- 
ing to  the  ovary,  its  limb  represented  by  a  hairy  pappus  or  scales,  or 
wanting.  Calyx  tube  adhering  to  the  ovary,  its  limb  usually  made 
up  of  hairy  bristles  or  scales,  occasionally  wanting.  Corolla  either 
tubular  or  strap-shaped,  generally  5-toothed  or  lobed ;  stamens  5, 
inserted  on  the  corolla;  anthers  united  in  a  tube  around  the  2-cleft 
style.  Fruit  an  akene,  one-seeded.  Leaves  alternate  or  opposite,  fre- 
quently divided  or  cut,  without  stipules.  The  florets,  or  little  flowers, 
are  aggregated  upon  a  receptacle,  the  tubular  florets  forming  a  circular 
disk,  while  the  strap-shaped  ones  form  a  circular  ring  outside  the  disk  ; 
in  some  cases  all  are  strap-shaped.  The  under  side  of  the  receptacle 
is  clothed  witli  or  included  in  a  foliaceous  aggregation  of  bract-like 
scales,  which  take  the  place  of  a  common  calyx,  and  are  called  the 
involucre-  Nearly  all  herbs.  A  very  large  order,  containing  766 
genera,  about  one  tenth  of  all  flowering  plants. 

INULA,  L.  Heads  many-flowered,  with  an  imbricated  involucre. 
Ray  flowers  numerous,  pistillate  ;  disk  flowers  perfect.  Receptacle 
naked ;  pappus  simple,  scabrous  ;  anthers  with  two 
bristles  at  the  base. 

L  Helenium,  L.  (Elecampaue.)  Stem  5  feet  high, 
stout,  coarse,  furrowed,  downy,  and  branching  above. 
Leaves  clasping  above  and  petioled  at  tlie  root,  ovate, 
rough,  downy  underneath,  very  large,  2  feet  long  and 
1  foot  wide ;  serrate,  crowtied  with  a  network  of  veins, 
midrib  large.  Flowor-heads  large,  solitary,  and  terminal ; 
rays  linear,  yellow  ends,  2-3-toothed.     Flowers  in  August. 

Geofjraphi/.  —  It  grows  freely  throughout  the  middle  of 
the  temperate  zone,  both  in  Europe  and  Xortli  America 
as  well  as  Asia,  in  rich,  dam])  soil.  Inula  Helekium 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Helenium,  the  specific  name,  comes  from  (Elecampane), 

the  Greek  name  of  the  plant,  4\(i/ioy,  given  in  honor  of 
Helen  of  Troy.     Jnula,  the  generic  name,  is  the  Latini/ed  form  of  the  same. 
Elecampane  is  derived  from  the  Greek  i\(viov  and  Latin  cam/nis,  a  field. 

Historij.  —  The  Elecampane  was  eaten  by  the  ancients  in  the  countries  of 
the  Levant,  and  Avas  used  by  the  Egy])tians  iov  medicine.  Dioscorides  de- 
scribes it.  Thunberg  saw  it  in  Japan,  near  Jed<U),  botli  under  cultivati«)n  and 
without.  lie  heard  no  Japanese  name,  hence  inferred  that  it  was  introduced 
there  by  Europeans  It  is  indigenous  to  middle  Asia,  and  was  carried  west 
throughout  middle  Europe  by  travellers,  and  wiuj  brought  to  northeast  America 
by  European  colonists. 


166 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Use.  —  It  is  used  in  the  materia  med'ica  as  a  tonic  in  weak  digestion  and 
nervous  complaints,  throat  diseases,  and  as  an  expectorant. 

ANTHEMIS,  L.  (Camomile.)  Flower-envelope,  in  form  of  a 
hemisphere  ;  scales  equal ;  rays  numerous,  pistillate ;  akenes  terete, 
angular,  or  striate,  crowned  with  a  border.  Receptacle  convex.  A 
perennial  herb. 

1.  A.  nobilis,  L.  (Roman  Camomile.)  Stems  numerous,  6  to  12  inches 
long,  spreading,  and   decumbent.      Leaves  1  to  2  inches  long,  sessile,  and 

velvety;  divisions  of  the  leaves  linear. 
Elower-heads  terminal,  on  long,  axillarv 
pedicels  ;  rays  white  ;  disk  yellow ;  scales 
of  receptacle  broad  and  obtuse ;  whole  plant 
has  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor  and  bitter  taste, 
especially  the  flowers. 

Var.  flore  pleno  has  double  flowers. 

2.  A.  arvensis,  L.  (Common  camomile. 
Field  camomile.)  Differs  from  A  nobilis 
very  Httle,  except  that  the  flowers  are 
smaller,  and  the  bitter  taste  is  less  agree- 
able. It  is  a  troublesome  weed  in  corn  and 
potato  fields  and  on  roadsides. 

Geoyraphij.  —  The  anthemis  grows  well 
throughout  the  middle  and  southern  por- 
tions of  the  north  temperate  zone,  in  Europe, 
America,  and  Africa.  The  home  of  the 
camomile  is  western  Europe.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Germany, 
but  the  best  is  produced  in  England,  and  was 
brought  to  northeast  America  by  European 
colonists.  By  cultivation,  the  yellow-disk 
florets  change  into  ray  florets,  and  become 
double."      But  their  medicinal   character  is 


Anthemis  nobilis 
(Roman  camomile). 


white;   they  are  then   called 
thereby  damaged. 

Etyiuolorjii  and  History.  —  Anthemis  is  from  the  Greek  6.vdos,  a  flower,  due 
to  the  profusion  of  flowers  it  produces.  Nobilis,  the  specific  name,  Latm  for 
"noble"  or  "grand,"  is  due  to  the  large  size  and  showy  character  of  the 
flower  of  this  species.  Arvensis  is  from  the  Latin  arvum,  a  plowed  field, 
where  the  plant  loves  to  grow.  Camomile  is  from  the  Greek  x«M«'.  on  the 
earth,  and  fxijKou,  an  apple,  due  to  the  apple-like  smell  of  the  flower.  There 
is  a  popular  belief  that  the  worse  the  usage  it  receives  the  bettor  it  grows. 
Shakespeare,  in  his  Henry  IV.,  says:  "  For  though  the  camomile  the  more  it 
is  trodden  on  the  faster  it  grows,  yet  youth  the  more  it  is  wasted  the  sooner 
it  wears." 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  of  camomile  are  stimulant  and  tonic,  and 
it  is  a  favorite  domestic  remedy  for  stomach  disorders  and  loss  of  appetite. 
The  effects,  besides  being  stimulant  and  tonic,  are  also  carminative  and  ano- 
dyne. A  strong  infusion,  administered  warm,  is  emetic.  The  flowers  are  used 
in  domestic  practice  for  fomentations  and  poultices.  The  extract  of  the  flowers, 
as  well  as  the  essential  oil,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bitters.     The  flowers 


COMPOSITiE. 


167 


arc  chcwpd  iiml  thf  siilivii  s\v:illt>\ve(I  for  stomach  disorders;  and  it  is  recorded 
that  the  ancient  Egyptians  made  an  ointment  by  bruising  the  Howers  with  oil, 
which  they  used  for  si<in  diseases.  The  constituents  of  the  Howers  are  a  fixed 
oil,  contained  in  tlie  seeds;  an  essential  oil,  upon  which  the  odor  depends; 
and  a  substance  obtained  by  extraction,  to  which  the  bitterness  is  due.  The 
essential  oil  is  obtained  by  distillation. 


CHRYSANTHEMUM,  Toiini.  Heads  many-flowered,  with  numerous 
pistillate  rays  ;  disk  flowers  fertile.  Involucre,  a  flattened  hemisphere; 
scales  short,  appressed,  thin,  and  imbricated.  Receptacle  flat  or  con- 
vex, naked.  Rays  usually  elongated;  corollas  of  the  disk  flowers 
flattened  or  i>-winged,  below  4-to  5- toothed.  Akenes  short,  ribbed 
or  angled,  truncate  at  the  tip,  often  destitute  of  pappus.  Herbaceous 
perennials,  or  annuals. 

There  are  many  species  belonging  to  this  genus.     The  celebrated 
Persian  insect-powder  is  the  pulverized  flowers  of  C.  roseum,  C.  car- 
neum,   and   C.    Wilmoti.      The    Dalmatian    insect- 
powder  is  the  product  of  C.  cinerariifolium,  Tres., 
var.   rotundifolium.      In   the    south   of    Europe    the 
C.  corymbosum  also  furnishes  an  insect  powder. 

C.  carneum,  M.  B.  (Chrysanthemum.)  Stem  18  inches 
high.  Leaf  smooth,  bipinnate  ;  segments  of  prismal  acute. 
Flower-heads  one  and  a  half  inches  bi'oad ;  involucre 
imbricated  ;  margin  brown  and  scarious ;  receptacle  convex, 
naked.  Ray-flowers  20  to  30,  ligulate,  nerved,  and  3-toothed  ; 
disk-flowers  numerous,  tubular,  .5-toothed.  Akenes  dark 
brown,  angular,  wingless,  crowned  with  a  short  membrana- 
ceous pappus.  Ray  florets  pale  pink.  Anthers  projecting. 
Perennial. 

Geographi/.  —  The  C.  carneum,  C.  roseum,  and  C.  Wil- 
moti are  found  native  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  north- 
ern Persia,  and  the  country  east  of  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas.     The  C.  cinerariifolium   is  indigenous  to   Dalmatia,  Montenegro,  and 
Herzegovina,  and  has  been  introduced  into  southwestern  Europe  and  Cali- 
fornia.    The  C.  corymbosum  is  native  in  southern  Europe. 

Etymology. —  Chri/santhemum  is  from  the  Greek  xp^<^os,  gold,  and  Hvdos,  a 
flower,  due  to  the  yellow  color  of  some  of  the  species.  Cnnipum,  the  specific 
name,  is  Latin  for  "  fleshy,"  possibly  derived  from  the  thick  fleshy  leaf  of  this 
species.  Roseum  refers  to  the  color  of  the  flower.  The  name  cinerariifhfium, 
from  the  Latin  word  cinis,  ashes,  and  folium,  leaf,  ash-leaved,  is  due  to  an 
ashy  down,  with  which  the  leaves  are  clothed.  Wilmoti  is  for  Wilmot. 
Rotundifolium,  from  rotundus,  round,  and/oZ/i/Hj,  a  leaf,  round-leaved. 

History. — The  use  of  these  flowers  as  an  insecticide  was  known  to  the 
ancients  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  but  their  introduction  as  articles  of  com- 
merce in  western  Europe  and  America  is  (piite  recent. 

It  is  advertised  under  tlie  name  of  Tersian  I'owdcr,  but  very  extravagant 
claims  are  made  for  the  Dalmatian  Powder. 

Use.  —  The  insect-powder  is  scattered  about  the  flower,  or  blown  into  cracks 
and  crevices  where  the  insects  liide.  It  is  especiallv  useful  in  the  destruction 
of  croton  bugs,  roaches,  fleas,  the  house-fly,  mos(piitos,  spiders,  ants,  etc.,  and 


Chrysanthemum 

CARNEUM 

(Chrysanthemum). 


168 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


all  forms  of  insect  life  that  infest  dwellings.  Lice  upon  poultry  or  cattle  are 
exterminated  by  it.  Scorpions  and  centipedes  also  succumb  before  its  potent 
presence. 

The  best  powder  is  produced  from  the  flower  when  the  pollen  is  just  mature ; 
in  fact  it  has  been  supposed  that  it  is  the  pollen  alone  tliat  is  effective,  but  it 
is  claimed  that  it  is  the  odor  that  effects  the  destruction  of  the  insect,  and 
there  seems  to  be  reason  for  this  belief ;  if  that  be  true,  it  cannot  be  the  pollen 
that  causes  the  death  of  the  insect,  for  the  odor  does  not  reside  in  the  pollen 
alone.  Again,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  pollen  possesses  an  independent 
odor  from  the  plant,  which  is  destructive  to  insect  life. 

The  powder  is  produced  by  grinding  the  flowers,  which  have  been  harvested 
just  as  the  pollen  is  ripe.  The  powders  of  commerce  are  said  to  be  adul- 
terated with  the  pulverized  flowers  of  anthemis. 

It  is  destructive  to  the  caterpillar  family,  as  well  as  the  coleoptera  tribe, 
and  this  has  been  used  as  an  argument  against  the  odor  theory.  Professor 
Riley,  in  1878,  showed  that  it  destroys  the  cotton-worm.  The  reason  for  its 
destructive  character  to  insect  life,  while  harmless  to  higher  forms  of  exist- 
ence, is  not  understood.    Men,  quadrupeds,  and  birds  breathe  it  with  impunity. 

TANACETTJM,  L.  Heads  iiiaiiy-flowerecl  and  coryiubosely  cyinose, 
staminate  flowers  occupying  the  central  part  of  the  head.     Pistillate 

flowers,  wdth  a  tubular  3-5-toothed 
corolla,  sometimes  imperfect,  or  partly 
ligulate,  arranged  around  the  outer 
edge  of  the  head ;  the  little  seed-ves- 
sels, ribbed  or  angled,  with  3-5  ridges, 
flat  on  top. 

T.  vulgare,  L.  (Tansy.)  Stem  erect, 
strong,  angular,  leafy,  and  branched 
above ;  smooth  and  purplish,  2  to  3  feet 
high.  Leaves  numerous,  alternate,  clasp- 
ing, bipinnate ;  segments  oblong,  cut,  and 
serrate ;  the  lower  leaves  bipinnate ;  the 
little  leaflets  trifid,  spreading  at  the  base 
along  the  petiole,  deep  green,  roughish, 
though  not  hairy,  deep  green,  paler  be- 
neath. Flowers  yellow,  in  a  terminal 
flat  corymb ;  involucre  hemispherical ; 
scales  imbricated,  numerous,  linear,  lance- 
olate, acute.  Ray  flowers  few  and  inconspicuous,  limb  toothed.  Disk  flowers 
many,  perfect,  tubular,  .^-cleft.  Stamens  5  ;  anthers  united  ;  all  included 
within  the  corolla  tube.  Ovary  oblong ;  style  setaceous ;  stigma  forked. 
Fruit  small,  obovate,  angular,  crowned  with  a  5-sided  membranous  pappus 
containing  a  single  seed.     August. 

Geography,  — The  geographical  range  of  the  tansy  is  not  very  wide.  Indi- 
genous to  the  Crimea  and  adjacent  parts  of  western  Asia,  it  has  spread 
through  middle  and  wCvStern  Europe  and  northern  Africa,  where  it  is  found 
in  gardens  and  by  the  roadsides  near  dwellings.  It  was  brought  to  North 
America  by  European  settlers  early  in  the  colonization  of  New  England, 
whence  it  has  spread  throughout  the  Atlantic  States,  escaping  from  gardens, 
and  has  become  naturalized. 


Tanacetum  vulgare  (Tansy). 


COMPOSITE. 


169 


Etymology.  —  Tanacetum  is  said  to  he  alterod  from  fitharwain,  which  is  derived 
from  the  two  Greek  words,  o,  without,  and  ddvaros,  death,  in  alhision  to  the 
durable  character  of  the  tlow  ers.  Vulgare,  the  specific  name,  is  fn.m  the  Latin  ad- 
jective vulgaris,  and  signifies  "  common."    Tansn  is  a  corruption  of  Tanacetum. 

History.  — The  Egyptians  liad  a  legend  that  their  deity  Isis  discinered  the 
properties  of  tansy.  The  plant  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  when  and 
where  it  was  introduced  into  medical  practice  is  not  known. 

Use.  —  The  medical  properties  of  tansy  are  stimulant,  carminative,  sud(jrific, 
and  anthelmintic.  It  is  used  princii)ally  at  the  present  day  in  domestic  prac- 
tice. The  i)ulverized  leaves,  mixed  with  sirup,  are  said  to  be  a  si)ecific  for 
ascaris.  A  tincture  is  used  for  stomach  bitters  ;  and  in  some  rural  districts  the 
bruised  leaves  and  Howers  are  used  to  flavor  gin,  taken  for  stomach  troubles. 
It  is  also  administered  for  ague,  in  the  form  of  tea. 

The  medical  properties  depend  upon  an  essential  oil,  called  oil  of  tansy, 
obtained  by  distilling  the  whole  plant 


Heads  discoid,   flower  en- 
Florets   all  tubular  and 


CARTHAMUS,    L.      (Sattiower,  Saffron.) 
velope  imbricated,   outer   bracts  leaf-like, 
perfect  ;     filaments    smooth  ;     without 
pappus;   receptacle  wnth  bristly  bracts 
or  palese.     Akene  4-angled.     Annual. 

C.  tinctorius,  L.  (vSatflower.)  Stem  smooth,  • 
3  to  4  feet  high,  nuich-branched  uear  the  top. 
Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate,  sessile,  aud  sub- 
amplexicault,  teeth  armed  with  sharp  spines. 
Flowers  orange-colored ;  heads  large,  ter- 
minal;  florets  long  and  slender. 

Geography.  —  The  Carthamus  is  indige- 
nous to  all  eastern  Asia  and  the  Levant,  aud 
has  been  introduced  into  Egypt  and  western 
Europe.  It  thrives  well  in  France  and 
southern  Germany,  aud  was  brought  by 
European  colonists  into  the  eastern  L'nited 
States  of  North  America,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated for  ornament. 

Etymology  and  History.  —  Carthamus  is 
derived  from  the  Arabic  word  7»or/o?H,  paint. 

•n  .-     ,      •  «    ic   fi.-A»i  t1,o       Carthamus  tinctorius  (Safflower). 

The  specihc  name,  tinctorius,  is  trom  the 

Latin    word    tinctura,   a  dyeing.     Sa/flou-er 

is  supposed  to  be  a  contraction  of  saffron-flower,  but  its  origin  is  not  clear. 
The  flowers  were  brought  into  western  Asia  and  southeastern  Europe,  over- 
land, as  early  as  H5  h.  (" 

Preparation.— To  obtain  the  dyeing  ])rin(ii)le  —  carthaniine  — the  young 
florets  are  i)icked  and  washed  to  free  them  from  a  s(dul)le  yellow  coloring 
matter  which  they  contain.  They  are  then  dried  in  kilns  and  i)Owdered,  and 
placed  in  an  alkaline  solution  in  which  pieces  of  clean  white  cotton  are  im- 
mersed. The  alkaline  solution  having  been  neutralized  with  weak  acetic 
acid,  the  cotton  is  removed  aiul  wa,'«hed  in  another  alkaline  solution.  The 
second  .solution  is  again  neutralized  with  acid,  and  carthamine  in  a  pure  con- 
dition is  precipitated.     Dried  carthamine  has  a  rich  metallic  green  color. 


ITO 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Use.  —  The  coloring  matter  of  the  safflower  is  used  in  cosmetics  for  delicate 
red  tints.  Its  principal  value  is  as  a  dye.  The  Chinese,  by  the  use  of  mor- 
dants, alkalies,  and  acids,  produce  from  this  plant  the  delicate  rose,  scarlet, 
purple,  and  violet  colors  that  make  their  silks  so  valuable.  The  Spaniards 
employ  the  flowers  to  color  their  soups.  The  Poles  mix  them  with  their  bread 
and  cakes.  The  seed  is  a  valuable  food  for  parrots  and  other  caged  birds ; 
domestic  fowls  eat  it  greedily,  and  fatten  rapidly  when  fed  upon  it.  The 
yellow  coloring-matter  is  an  extract,  but  the  red  is  known  to  the  chemist 
under  the  name  of  carthamine. 

As  a  medicine  the  safflower  is  purgative  when  taken  in  large  doses.  The 
seeds  yield  an  oil  which  is  prescribed  as  a  remedy  for  rheumatism  and 
paralysis. 


Order  XXXI.    CAMPANULACE-a3.     (Bell  Flower.) 

Flowers  superior,  5-merous,  symmetrical ;  perianth  and  stamens 
adhering  to  the  ovary ;  anthers  distinct  or  united ;  ovary  usually 
2-3-celled ;  seeds  numerous.  Herbs  or  shrubs,  with  milky  juice. 
Leaves  usually  alternate,  exstipulate. 

No.  of  genera,  53. 

LOBELIA,  L.  Calyx  5-parted ;  tube  short,  egg-shaped  ;  corolla  irreg- 
ular, 2-lipped,  upper  lip   2-lobed,  lower  lip  3-cleft ;   stigma  2-lobed  ; 

seed-vessels  2-celled,  many-seeded, 
opening  above.  Leaves  alternate. 
Biennial. 

1.  L.  inflata,  L.  (Indian  Tobacco. 
Emetic  Weed.)  Stem  10  to  20  inches 
in  height,  much-branched,  clothed  with 
hairs.  Leaves  ovate  or  lanceolate,  irreg- 
ularly toothed,  sessile,  lower  ones  blunt 
at  the  apex.  Inflorescence  a  paniculated 
leafy  raceme.  Flowers  pale-blue,  on  short 
pedicels,  lobes  of  the  calyx  as  long  as  the 
corolla  ;  pods  inflated.     Flowers  in  July. 

2.  L  cardinalis,  L.  (Cardinal  Flower.) 
Stem  simple,  erect,  1  to  2  feet  high, 
pubescent.  Leaves  lanceolate,  pointed  at 
each  end,  3  inches  long,  pubescent  and 
toothed.  Flowers  scarlet,  in  a  terminal 
lengthened  raceme,  1-sided,  pedicels 
shorter  than  the  bracts ;  stamens  exsert, 
color  deep  flaming  red,  very  showy. 
Damp  grounds  throughout  the  north- 
eastern States.     Easily  cultivated. 

3.  L.  syphilitica,  L.  (Blue  Cardinal 
Flower.       Great     Lobelia.)       Like     the 

last,  except  in  the  color  of  the  flower,  which  is  bright  blue,  rarely  white. 
Wet  grounds  by  the  roadsides,  common  in  the  northeastern  states.  Bears 
cultivation. 


Lobelia  inflata  (Emetic  Weed). 


VArciNiArE.E.  171 

This  fomis  is  very  large,  containing  about  400  species,  about  20  of  which 
are  indigenous  to  the  United  States.  Both  tlie  L.  cardiualis  and  L.  syphilitica 
possess  the  narcotic  poisonous  properties  of  L.  iuflata,  but  in  a  milder  degree. 

Geofjmphi/.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  tliis  genus  is  very  wide,  and 
it  has  representatives  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  l)ut  the  L.  inHata  is  confined  to 
North  America,  ranging  fr(jni  North  Carolina  to  Canada,  and  west  to  Kentucky. 

Etymoloyij.  —  'lhe  name  Lobelia  was  given  to  this  plant  in  honor  of  Matthias 
de  Lobel,  a  native  of  Lisle,  l)()tanist  and  physician  to  James  I.  The  specific 
name  injiata  is  Latin,  and  due  to  the  circumstance  that  the  pods  are  inflated. 
Kinetic  weed  derives  its  name  from  the  powerful  emetic  (lualities  wiiich  the 
plant  possesses.  Indian  tobacco  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  this  plant  is 
used  by  the  North  American  Indians,  and  that  its  effects  are  similar  to  tho.se 
of  tobacco.  It  is  expectorant  and  diaphoretic  in  small  doses,  but  in  full 
medicinal  doses,  nauseating  and  emetic.  Cardiualis  and  cardinal  are  names 
due  to  the  large,  showy,  intensely  red  flowers  of  this  species.  Syp/iilitica 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  this  plant  is  used  as  a  remedy  in  .syphi- 
litic disea.ses,  while  the  common  name,  blue  cardinal,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this 
species,  though  otherwise  similar  to  the  L.  cardiualis,  has  briglit  l)lue  flowers. 

History.  —The  only  history  the  Lobelia  inHata  can  boast  of  is  due  to  the 
controversy  carried  on  some  years  ago  by  the  physicians  of  the  old  school  and 
the  Thomsonian  empirics,  the  latter  claiming  marvelous  curative  properties 
for  it,  and  proclaiming  it  a  useful  and  harmless  medicine,  while  the  regular 
physicians  denounced  it  as  a  dangerous  poison,  to  1)0  avoided  or  used  with 
great  caution. 

Chemistry. — The  exact  chemical  character  is  not  known.  It  yields  to 
analysis  an  alkaloid  liquid  lobeliana,  and  an  acid  called  lobelic  acid;  these 
substances  reside  in  all  parts  of  the  plant. 

Use.  — IjoheWa  iuflata  has  gained  renown  as  an  empiric  remedy.  It  enters 
into  almost  every  preparation  of  the  Thomsonian  physicians  ;  they  place  great 
reliance  upon  its  virtues  as  a  tonic,  emetic,  and  bilious  excitant.  The  root  of 
the  L.  syphilitica  is  extensively  used  by  the  North  American  Indians. 

Order  XXXII     VACCINIACE^. 

Flower.s  4-.>meroii.«;,  rognlar.  Calyx  adiiate  to  th(^  ovary  ;  petals 
united;  8-10  stamens;  anthers  opening;  at  the  apex:  ovarv  several- 
celled.  Fruit,  a  berry  or  drupe.  Shrubs,  with  alternate  exstipulate 
leaves. 

No.  of  oenera,  '20. 

GAYLUSSACIA,  11.  R.  K.  (llnckleberry.)  Corolla  a  short,  ecrg-shaped 
tube,  with  a  .'vcleft  edge;  limb  reflexed  ;  stamens  10;  anthers  without 
awns;  cells  tapering  upward.s,  forming  a  .sub-tubular  process  opening 
at  top;  style  longer  than  stamens;  stigma  flat.  Fruit  globular,  flat- 
tened at  top  with  4-5  cells;  seeds  many.  Flower  solitary,  pedicellate, 
racemose,  drooping,  pinkish.     Fruit  black  or  !>liiish 

1.  G.  dumosa,  Torr,  and  Oray.  (Dwarf  Whortleberry,  or  Huckleberry.) 
Clothed  with  fine  hairs,  and  glandular.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  mucronate, 
both  sides  green,  shining  when  old  ;  racemes  long  ;  bracts  oval,  and  as  long 
as  the  pedicels,  persistent ;  corolla  campannlate.  Fruit  black,  tastele.ss.  Var. 
Hirtella  is  distinguished  by  having  the  young  branchlets,  racemes,  and  leaves 


172 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


clothed  with  hairs.     This  variety  is  found  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  and 
south. 

2.  G.  frondosa,  Torr.  and  Gray.  (Blueberry.  Tangleberry.  High  Blueberry.) 
Smooth  branches,  slender  and  spreading.  Leaves  ovate,  blunt,  twice  as  long 
as  wide,  pale  beneath.  Racemes  slender,  loose ;  bracts  sublinear ;  corolla 
globular,  bell-shaped.  Branches  slender,  with  grayish  bark.  Flowers  small, 
nearly  globular,  reddish-white.     Eruit  large,  clothed  with  a  glaucous  bloom. 

3.  G.  resinosa,  Torr.  and  Gray.  (Black  Huckleberry.)  Branched,  rigid, 
somewhat  hairy  when  young.  Leaves  petioled,  oblong,  egg-shaped,  entire, 
sprinkled  with  resinous  dots,  2  inches  long,  sometimes  acute,  shining  beneath  ; 
racemes  short,  1-sided,  bracteate ;  corolla  conically  egg-shaped  or  cylindrical, 
narrowed  at  the  mouth.     Flowers  reddish ;  corymbose  in  dense  clusters,  small 

and  drooping,  greenish-  or  yellowish-pur- 
ple, longer  than  the  stamens ;  style  ex- 
serted.  Fruit  black,  globular,  sweet,  and 
edible.     Ripe  in  July  and  August. 

Geography,  —  G.  dumosa  is  found  com- 
mon along  the  coast  of  North  America, 
from  Newfoundland  to  Florida.  The  G. 
frondosa  is  common  in  New  England, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Kentucky,  and  south 
to  Louisiana  and  Florida.  G,  resinosa  is 
found  in  damp  woods,  from  Newfound- 
land to  Georgia. 

Etymology.  —  The  name  Gaylussacia 
was  given  to  the  genus  in  honor  of  M. 
Gay  Lussac,  the  eminent  French  chemist. 
Dianosa,  the  Latin  for  "  bush,"  is  applied 
to  this  plant  to  denote  its  character  in 
that  respect.  Frondosa  is  Latin  for 
"  leafy,"  and  was  given  to  the  species  on 
account  of  the  length  of  the  leaf.  The 
specific  name  resinosa  was  applied  on  account  of  the  presence  of  resinous  dots, 
or  globules,  on  the  leaves.  Whortleberry  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
ivyrtil,  a  small  shrub.  HucMeberry  is  a  corruption  of  hurtleberry,  derived 
from  whortleberry.  The  derivation  of  tangleberry  is  obscure.  Blueberry  is 
named  from  the  color  of  the  berries. 

History  and  Use,  —  G.  resinosa  is  the  huckleberry  of  the  markets.  It  was 
the  favorite  berry  used  by  the  natives  of  North  America  in  their  celebrated 
attitash,  consisting  of  huckleberries  of  several  sorts  dried  and  beaten  to  powder 
xVnother  favorite  dish,  called  sautaash,  consisted  of  the  attitash  mixed  with 
corn  meal,  and  Avas  always  prepared  for  their  festivals. 

OXYCOCCUS,  Pers.  (Cranberry.)  Calyx  adhering  to  the  ovary, 
4-cleft.  Corolla  4-parted  ;  segments  narrow  and  turned  back  ;  stamens 
8,  convergent ;  anthers  tubular,  2-parted,  opening  by  oblique  pores. 
Fruit  a  globular,  4-celled,  many-seeded  berry.  Shrubs,  with  slender, 
creeping,  assurgent  stems  and  branches. 

1.  0.macrocarpus,Pers.  (Vacciniummacrocarpum,  Ait.)  (Large-fruited  C ran 
berry.)     Stem  from  1  to  5  feet  long,  pro.strate,  throwing  up  assurgent  flower- 


Gaylussacia  resinosa  (Huckleberry). 


VACCIXIACK.'E. 


173 


ius  .,ua  £ruit.l.<.a.-i..g  l.rai.ches.     Leaves  elliptical.  n.arRi.is  rolled  „ve,-,  upper 

iwe  dark  ™en  glaTu-ous  underneath;  flower  large;  antUera  ...ore  than  tw.ce 

1     it'th  o      1.?.  Iila,.,e.,t.     Kruit  varying  fro.n  ca..,pa.„,l;Ue  to  orb.cu lar 

dark  when  ripe.    The  e.-anberry  sports  f.c.ely  as  to  the  Iru.t;   the  leaf  .s 

^■'?hrrrr'tr.^:'^*'-^ea  a.„.  ,«ite  co..sta.,t  varieties  k.,owua.„oug 
cuUivators  as  follows:  Bell-sl.aped.  or  l-ear-shaped ;  Bugle-shaped ;  Cherry- 
shaped  Tls  last  for..,  is  sc.eti.nes  Hattened  at  the  poles,  a..d  .s  theu  called 
Cheete  shaped  C.Itivators  who  have  .nade  careful  oUservat.ous  th.uk  they 
have  detecLd  fro.n  20  to  40  varieties.    The  following  ftve  for...s  are  very 

'TXirpear-shaped,  from  six  tenths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  i.,  length.  a..d 
four  to  seven  te.iths  in  dia.neter ;  dark  when  r.pe.  „      ■    ., 

0  Var  ™<.  ..  shape  fro,,,  fusitor.„  to  cylindrical,  someti...es  s.ualler  .u  the 
nrUidle  tha.^at  the  In.ls,  a..d  every  way  larger  than  Ko.  1 ;  dark  when  r.pe. 
This  is  what  the  growers  call  bugle-shaped. 

3.  Nearly  globular,  from  a  quarter  to  three 
quarters  of'  an  iuch  iu  diameter ;  very  dark  wheu 

4.  About  the  size  and  shape  of  No.  3,  but 
creamy  white  when  ripe. 

5.  Very  mucli  smaller  than  Nos.  3  and  4. 
Globular,' three  to  four  tenths  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter; verv  prolific,  and  very  dark  when  ripe. 


OXYCOCCrS   MACR0CARPC3 

(Cranberry). 


9  0.  palustris,  Pers.  (Vaccinium  oxycoccus.) 
(Small  Cranberrv.)  Differs  from  O.  macrocarpus 
iu  bearing  verv 'much  smaller  leaves  and  fruit. 
The  fruit  also  vields  a  sharper  acid,  indicated  by 
its  name,  sour-berried.  It  is  collected  where  it 
grows  spontaneously,  but  is  not  cultivated. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the 
cranberrv  is  verv  wide;  it  reaches  from  38°  to 
60°  north  latitude,  and  covers  a  belt  trending  east 
and  we.st  from  Siberia  to  the  Britisli  Isles,  and  in 
North  America  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the 

/VywX/V  —  Or, /coccus,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek  6^6s.  sour,  and 
kSkkos  a  berrv  —sour  berrv.  The  specific  name,  macrocarpus,  ii^  from  the 
r.veek  aaKp6sjoncr^  and  Kapirds,  fruit;  hence  we  have  hug  fruit.  ^  Tins  name 
was  given  bv  Aiton  to  distinguish  it  from  the  small-fruited  species  O.  palus- 
tris The  creuus  wa.s  formerlv  known  by  the  name  of  vacaunim,  the  meaning 
of  "which  is'^.bscure.  The  common  name  cranberry,  which  is  a  corruption  of 
cram  berry,  is  said  to  have  been  given  because  the  assurgent  branches  bend 
over  in  a  curve  resembling  the  neck  of  the  crane. 

History.  — 'V\\e  historv  of  this  plant  furnishes  little  .>f  ii.tere.«^t.     It  has  tor 
some  vears  been  under  cultivation,  but  its  importance  as  a  food-plant  or  an 
article  of  commerce  is  of  recent  date.     It  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  middle 
Vtlantic  States,  Massachusetts,  lihode  I.><lan.i.  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, and  Maryland.     More  attention  has   been   given   to  it  in  New  Jersey 

than  elsewhere.  >,  .i  i  i>,,..i;„.r 

Cultivation.-  Tlu'   .nude  of  cultivation   ,n  (».•.•:....  M..nmouth.  and  huil.ng- 


174  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

tou  counties,  iu  New  Jersey,  iu  the  Beaver  Dam  Company's  plautatious,  and 
those  of  the  Hon.  Ephraim  P.  Empson  at  Collier's  Mills,  which  are  among  the 
most  extensive,  and  are  fair  specimens  of  the  others,  is  as  follows :  The  loca- 
tion is  selected  along  a  small  stream,  whose  valley  is  of  some  width  and  the 
adjacent  banks  of  which  are  high  enough  to  allow  flooding  by  constructing  a 
low  dam.  The  ground  is  then  cleared  of  the  trees  and  shrubbery,  roots  and 
all.  These  are  piled  in  heaps,  and  as  soon  as  dry  they  are  burned,  and  the  ashes 
are  spread.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with  sand,  into  which  the  plants  are  set 
in  rows,  so  that  the  following  year  they  may  be  kept  free  from  weeds  with  the 
hoe.  When  the  plants  begin  to  fruit  they  are  flooded  for  several  months, 
beginning  in  November,  and  in  May  the  water  is  let  off.  In  September  pick- 
ing commences,  Avhich  is  paid  for  by  the  crate,  or  bushel,  the  price  varying 
from  forty  to  sixty  cents  a  crate.  The  owners  of  the  bogs,  as  the  plantations 
are  called,  erect  cabins  on  or  near  the  grounds  to  accommodate  the  pickers, 
who  come  from  far  and  near;  old  men  and  women,  girls  and  boys,  flock  to 
the  cranberry  harvest.  The  quantity  picked  in  a  day  varies  from  one  crate 
to  five ;  the  women  and  young  girls  are  the  most  dexterous,  and  frequently 
earn  as  much  as  two  and  a  half  dollars  a  day  when  the  fruit  is  abundant. 

Use.  —  The  cranberry  has  a  sharp,  acid,  and  astringent  taste,  in  a  raw  state. 
Cooking  destroys  the  astringency,  but  does  not  neutralize  the  acid.  It  is  a 
favorite  sauce  with  poultry  and  game,  and  is  largely  used  for  jellies  and  pre- 
serves. The  ripe  fruit  can  be  kept  for  a  long  time  in  vessels  of  water  tightly 
sealed.  It  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  immersed  in  molasses,  and 
kept  in  a  uniform  and  cool  temperature.  Large  quantities  are  shipped  to 
France,  where  the  berries  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  colors. 

Marts.  — The  great  market  for  cranberries  is  NeAV  York  City.  The  prices 
have  ranged  during  the  last  ten  years  from  two  to  five  dollars  a  crate  or 
bushel. 

Order  XXXIII.     SAPOTACEJE. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular,  axillary ;  caljTc  4-8-partefl ;  corolla  with 
united  petals,  hypogynous,  4-8-lobed,  imbricated  in  the  bud ;  stamens 
on  the  corolla,  fertile  ones  equalling  number  of,  and  opposite  to,  the 
corolla-lobes  ;  ovary  several-celled  ;  style  cylindrical ;  stigma  acute  or 
capitellate  ;  ovules  solitary,  in  the  cells.  Fruit  a  berry,  with  one  to 
many  cells.  Seeds  with  a  bony  testa,  embryo  large.  Leaves  alternate, 
entire,  and  coriaceous  ;  stipules  wanting  or  falling  early.  Trees  or 
shrubs,  with  milky  juice  and  stellate  leaves. 

No.  of  genera,  26  ;  species,  325.     Tropical  or  subtropical. 

DICHOPSIS,  Thu.  Cal}^s  6f-parted  in  two  series,  outer  row  valvate ; 
corolla  6-lobed,  usually  acute  ;  stamens  12,  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
corolla,  every  alternate  one  shorter  ;  anthers  lanceolate  ;  ovarium  vil- 
lous, 6-celled  ;  style  awl-shaped.  Large  trees.  Leaves  leathery,  clothed 
underneath  with  rusty-yellow,  short,  woolly,  pubescence.  Flowers 
axillary,  stalked. 

D.  gutta,  Bentley  and  T.  (Gutta  Percha.)  Trunk  60  to  70  feet  high,  2  to  3 
feet  in  diameter ;  bark  rough ;  twigs  tomentose.  Leaves  alternate  ;  stipules 
deciduous ;  petioles  long,  stout,  thickened  at  the  base ;  blade  obovate,  oblong, 
short,  acuminate,   tapering  at  the  base,  entire;    margin  revolute,  glabrous 


SATOTACKM. 


above,  densely  tomentose  underneath,  and  heathery,  witli  parallel  veins  nearly 
at  right  angles  with  tlie  prominent  inidrih.  Flowers  small,  on  short,  recurved, 
silky  j^edicels,  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Calyx  hell-shaped;  seg- 
ments 6,  in  2  imbricated  rows,  persistent.  Corolla-tube  scarcely  longer  than 
the  calyx,  with  G  segments;  staiuens  12,  inserted  on  the  throat  of  the  corolla; 
filaments  in  one  row,  equal,  slender,  extending  beyond  the  segments  of  the 
corolla ;  anthers  ovate  acute,  2-celled,  opeuiug  lengthwise  outwardly  ;  ovary 
globose,  slightly  j)ubesceut,  6-celled,  with  au  ovule  in  each  cell  ;  style  simple, 
slender,  longer  than  the  stameus ;  stigma  terminal,  blunt.  Fruit  one  and  a 
half  inches  loug,  ovoid,  pointed,  and  rusty-pubescent.     Seed  uot  described. 

(ieofjraphi/. — The  tree  tliat  furnishes  the  gutta  percha  of  commerce  is 
tropical,  found  mitive  in  the  East  Indies,  Ceylon,  and  the  Malay  Islands. 

Ktymoloijii.  —  Dichopsis  is  from  the  Greek  Six«,  diversely,  and  oi//ty,  aspect. 
Gutta,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Malay, 
and  signifies  "  sticky  juice ; "  and  percha  is 
Malay    for    "  tree  ;  "    hence    "  sticky-juiced 
tree." 

History.  —  Gutta  percha  was  first  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  Europeans  by  voy- 
agers wlio  had  visited  the  coasts  of  Malacca 
and  the  Malay  Islands.  The  sailors  obtained 
it  from  the  natives,  in  the  form  of  bowls, 
cups,  etc.,  as  drinking-vessels,  knife-iiaudles, 
and  other  useful  articles.  Dr.  Montgomerie 
carried  gutta  percha  to  England  in  1843, 
and  showed  the  method  of  forming  it  into 
domestic  utensils  and  surgical  instruments; 
it  has  now  attained  a  point  of  wonderful  im- 
portance in  domestic  economy. 

vSome  notice  of  the  tree  was  taken  to 
Europe  in  1656,  nearly  two  hundred  years 
prior.  ])ut  the  world  seemed  not  yet  ready 
for  it. 

Preparation.  —  It  was  at  first  obtained  by 
felling  the  tree,  stripping  off  the  bark,  and 

removing  the  cambium  layer,  which  is  charged  with  sap  containing  the  sub- 
stance. Now  a  less  wasteful  method  is  practiced,  which  consists  in  tapping 
by  boring  into  the  sap-wood  and  inserting  a  tube.  The  sap  thus  caught  soon 
coagulates,  and  can  bo  kneaded  into  cakes  for  market,  at  which  time  it  has 
tile  appearance  of  leather  and  the  odor  of  cheese.  Thougli  not  elastic,  it  is 
made  plastic  l)y  heat,  when  it  takes  any  form  to  suit  the  workman's  fancv. 

Use.  —  The  timber  of  this  magnificent  tree  is  not  valuable  for  building  pur- 
poses, as  it  is  soft  and  weak.  The  gum  it  produces,  however,  has  become  of 
great  economic  importance.  It  is  of  intermediate  consistence  l)etweon  wood 
and  leather,  softens  by  heat,  aiul  is  immersed  in  hot  water  for  that  purpose  ; 
while  in  a  soft  state  it  takes  delicate  iiiiprossions.  which  remain  sharp 
when  cool 

It  is  formed  into  knife-handlt-s.  whips,  surgical  instruments,  splints,  combs, 
soles  of  shoes,  and  covers  for  books;  hut  the  most  important  use  to  which  it 
has  been  applie<l  is  to  insulate  telegraphic  cables  Being  impervious  to  water 
and  a  bad  ((niductor  of  »'lectricity,  it  is  the  best  of  all  materials  for  that 
purpose. 


Dichopsis  gutta  (Gutta  Percha). 


176  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Note.  — Achras  sapota,  Wight,  a  tree  of  this  order,  bears  a  pear-like  fruit, 
Avhich,  when  a  little  over-ripe,  is  sweet  and  edible.     Native  of  Panama. 

Bassia  latifolia,  Koxb.,  another  tree  of  this  order,  is  one  of  the  Butter  Trees. 
The  flowers  are  used  for  food ;  a  wine  is  also  made  from  them.  By  distilling, 
a  spirit  comes  over,  and  by  expression,  an  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds. 
Native  of  Bengal. 

The  Bassia  Parkii  is  the  butter  tree  of  Africa,  which  supplies  material  for 
candles  and  soap. 

The  Mimusops  elata,  the  Cow  Tree  of  Para,  in  northeastern  parts  of  Brazil, 
—  is  another  of  this  order,  the  sap  of  which  resembles  rich  cream.  The 
fiuit,  of  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  apple,  is  edible. 

Order  XXXIV.     EBENACE^. 

Flowers  seldom  perfect,  usually  dioecious,  in  crowded  cymes  or  scat- 
tered along  the  ends  of  the  branchlets  ;  calyx  3-6-parted  ;  corolla  on 
the  receptacle  ;  petals  united,  urn-shaped,  leathery,  smooth  within  and 
pubescent  outside  ;  limb  3-6-parted,  imbricated  in  the  bud  ;  stamens 
inserted  on  the  bottom  of  the  corolla,  twice  as  many  as  the  number  of 
lobes  in  the  corolla,  occasionally  equal  or  4  times  as  many ;  filaments 
free  or  in  pairs  ;  ovary  sessile,  3  to  many-celled.  Fruit  a  berry,  globu- 
lar or  ovoid,  succulent,  few-seeded.  Seeds  inverted  ;  testa  membra- 
nous. Leaves  alternate,  leathery,  entire,  and  without  stipules.  Trees 
and  shrubs,  with  hard  wood. 

No.  of  genera,  6. 

DIOSPYROS,  L.  Flowers  dioecious  and  polygamous ;  cah^  4-6-lobed ; 
corolla  bell-shaped,  4-6-parted,  rolled  together  in  the  bud  ;  stamens 
4-8,  or  numerous  ;  filaments  short.  Fruit  globular,  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  fleshy,  persistent 
calyx,  4-8-celled,  with  8  to  12  seeds.     Tree. 

1.  D.  Virginiana,  L.  (Persimmon.)  Trunk  30  to  50  feet  in  height,  10  to 
18  inches  in  diameter,  forming  a  symmetrical  head.  Leaves  elliptical,  bluntly 
acuminate,  entire,  dark  green,  paler  underneath,  smooth,  and  3  to  5  inches 
long;  petioles  and  veins  somewhat  hairy,  glaucous  underneath  ;  calyx  4-parted ; 
stamens  8.  Flowers  greenish  yellow.  Fruit  globular,  an  inch  to  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  diameter.  Sap-wood  yellowish  white,  light  and  soft ;  heart-wood 
dark,  heavier,  and  harder. 

2.  D.  ebenura,  Retz.  (Ebony.)  Trunk  50  to  80  feet  high,  2  to  3  feet  in 
diameter,  branching  into  a  beautiful  head.  Leaves  elliptical,  pointed,  and 
mucronate.  Fruit  large,  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  edible.  AVood  black,  very 
close-grained,  sinks  in  water,  and  takes  a  fine  polish. 

There  are  many  species  of  the  Diospyros,  all  yielding  a  hard,  dark  wood. 
The  wood  of  the  D.  ebenum,  however,  is  the  wood  known  as  ebony,  or 
iron-ivood. 

3.  D.  melanoxylon,  Roxb.,  produces  the  black  ebony  found  native  in  southern 
Asia.     Wood  very  hard,  heavy,  sinks  in  water,  and  takes  a  fine  polish. 

Geography.  —  The  Diospyros  Virginiana  is  a  native  of  North  America, 
throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  north  temperate  zone  up  to  40°  of  north 


EHKNACE^:. 


177 


latitude.  1).  ehenuin  is  a  uativc  of  Ceyluii,  aud  is  not  indigenous  outside  of 
the  ti\)j)ics  ;  it  is  found,  however,  at  an  elevation  of  5,()()()  feet,  which  suggests 
that  it  woukl  grow  in  the  edge  of  the  temperate  zones,  in  regions  of  no  frost. 
The  1).  ebeuuni  is  also  found  native  in  Mauritius. 

Etymology.  —  iJ'iospyros  is  derived  from  the  Greek  words  At'os,  Jove,  aud  iTvp6i, 
fruit,  —  the  fruit  of  Jove,  or  the  fruit  of  the  gods,  or  heaveuly  fruit.  Ehenmn, 
from  the  Hebrew  then,  a  stoue,  is  in  allusion  to  its  hardness.  Virg'miana  is 
derived  from  Virginia,  the  country  wliere  it  was  first  f<jund  by  botanists. 
Melanoxylon  is  derived  from  the  Greek  fxeXas,  black,  and  ^v\ov,  wood,  hence 
black  wood.  Ebony  (the  common  uame  of  I),  ebeuum)  is  a  corruption  of  the 
scientific  name  FJxnuni.  Persimmon  is  the  name  given  to  this  species  by  the 
American  Indians;  its  meaning  is  unknown. 


DiosPYRO.s  ViRGiNiANA  (Persimmou). 


Preparation.  —  The  best  ebony  is  produced  by  the  D.  ebenum,  and  is  taken 
from  Ceylon  to  England  in  logs  from  18  to  2-4  inches  in  diameter,  and  12  feet 
long  ;  large  quantities  of  excellent  ebony  are  also  sent  from  Mauritius  (D.  reti 
culata)  in  poles  or  logs  from  10  to  20  feet  long  ami  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  seasoned  under  water.  Wlien  felled  it  is  immersed  in  water,  where  it 
remains  for  six  to  eighteen  months,  when  removed  from  the  water  the  ends 
are  hooped  with  iron  rings,  to  prevent  checking  and  splitting  An  ebony  is 
also  obtained  in  the  T.sland  of  St  Helena  from  the  Dombeya  melanoxylon,  of 
the  order  Byttneriaceiv. 

Use.  —  Ebony  is  higlily  prized  by  turners  as  a  material  for  their  purpose; 
largelv  used  for  wind  instruments,  a,s  flutes,  fifes,  ]>iccolos,  etc.;  it  is  used  for 
veneerinor.  inlaying,  and  for  piano  keys,  nuts  for  violins;  also  the  finger  boards 
and  tail  pieces,  with  the  screws  for  tuning,  are  made  of  ebony. 
Ph.  El.  — l;i 


178  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Order  XXXV.      OLEACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  occasionally  dioecious  and  without  petals,  in  a 
raceme  or  trichotomous  panicle  ;  calyx,  with  sepals  united,  4-lobed  or 
toothed,  sometimes  wanting  ;  corolla  hypogynous  ;  petals  4,  united  at 
the  base  in  pairs,  or  all  united  ;  stamens  2,  inserted  on  the  corolla,  and 
alternating  with  its  lobes ;  ovary  free,  2-celled.  Fruit  a  drupe,  a 
2-celled  berry  or  a  samara.  Leaves  opposite,  petioled,  simple,  or  odd- 
pinnate.     Trees  and  shrubs. 

No.  of  genera,  18 ;  species,  280. 

OLEA,  Tourn.  (Olive.)  Calyx  short,  4-toothed,  persistent ;  corolla 
tube  short ;  limb  4-parted,  and  spreading  ;  stamens  2,  inserted  in  the 
base  of  the  tube,  longer  than  the  corolla  tube ;  ovary  with  4  suspended 
ovules,  2  or  3  of  which  prove  abortive.  Fruit  a  fleshy  drupe,  and  oily. 
An  evergreen  shrub  or  tree,  with  opposite  leaves. 

0.  Europaea,  L.  (Olive.)  Trunk  20  to  30  feet  high,  much-branched  and 
spreading,  forming  a  symmetrical  head ;  branches  angular.  Leaves  lanceo- 
late, entire,  deep  green  above,  light  hoary  beneath,  and  evergreen  Flowers 
axillarv,  in  short,  compact  racemes,  small  and  white  Fruit  greenish,  or 
wliitish- violet,  sometimes  nearly  black,  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  oval,  sometimes 
globular  or  obovate,  and  very  abundant. 

There  are  several  species,  but  the  0.  Europsea  is  the  one  usually  cultivated. 
Of  this  species  there  are  five  important  varieties :  — 

Var.  longifolia.    Leaves  linear,  lanceolate,  flat  and  silky  beneath. 

Var.  latifolia.     Leaves  broad,  oblong,  flat  and  hoary  beneath. 

Var.  ferruginea.     Leaves  narrow,  acute  at  each  end,  rusty  beneath. 

Var.  obliqua.     Leaves  oblong,  bent  obliquely,  pale  beneath. 

Var.  buxifolia     Leaves  oblong-ovate,  and  branches  divaricate. 

Var.  sylvestris,  found  outside  of  cultivation,  is  characterized  by  smaller 
fruit.  It  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  the  Canary  and  Madeira 
Isles.     There  are  other  varieties,  but  those  mentioned  are  the  most  approved. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  olive-tree  is  not  very  broad ; 
it  grows  best  just  on  the  edge  of  the  region  of  no  frost,  and  on  the  seacoast. 
Its  area  of  growth  is  especially  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Syria,  Spain,  Italy,  northern  Africa,  and  the  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean  are  the  great  olive-growing  regions.  The  ports  of  export 
are  Trani,  Barletta,  Bari,  Mola  di  Bari,  Molfetta,  Otranto,  Taranto,  and 
especially  Gallipoli. 

Etymology.  —  Olea,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek  iXala,  through  the 
Celtic  or  Gothic  word  oleic,  oil,  due  to  the  oil-sacs  deposited  near  and  just 
under  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Europaea,  the  specific  name,  is  due  to  the  circum- 
stance that  this  species  is  the  one  under  cultivation  throughout  Europe. 
Olive,  the  common  name,  is  plainly  a  corruption  of  the  generic  name,  or  a 
contraction  of  the  French  Olivier. 

History.  —  The  home  of  the  olive  has  been  traced  to  Syria,  whence  it  easily 
spread  through  the  countries  of  the  Levant  and  southern  Europe.  Though  it 
has  no  Sanscrit  name,  it  is  referred  to  as  one  of  the  plants  upon  Mount  Ararat 
at  the  time  of  the  Deluge.     The  wood  is  found  iu  the  stone  coffins  of  Egyp- 


OLEACE^.. 


179 


tiaus.  But  we  have  uo  means  of  determining  the  exact  date  of  its  introduction 
into  Europe.  It  propagates  itself  freely,  and  is  growing  without  cultivation 
iu  all  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean.  The  olive  tree  is  of  slow 
growth,  but  where  its  natural  development  is  allowed  for  ages,  the  trunk  often 
attains  a  considerable  diameter.  l)e  Caudolle  records  one  23  feet  in  girth 
whose  age  was  supposed  to  be  seven  centuries.  Some  Italian  olives  are 
credited  with  an  anti([uity  reaching  back  to  the  days  of  repuldican  Rome; 
but  the  age  of  such  ancient  trees  is  always  doubtful  during  growth,  and  their 
identity  with  old  descriptions  is  still  more  difficult  to  establish. 

Cultivation.  —  Its  mode  of  culture,  or  rather  the  method  of  making  a  planta- 
tion, is  singular  and  interesting.  The  province  of  Susa,  in  Morocco,  produces 
great  abundance  of  olive  oil,  wiiich  has  the 
reputation  of  being  of  such  excelh^nt  quality 
as  to  rival  the  celebrated  Florence  oils.  In 
Jackson's  account  of  the  empire  of  Morocco 
there  is  a  description  of  an  extensive  olive 
plantation.  The  order  and  arrangement  of 
the  trees  struck  him  as  being  very  curious, 
and  on  inquiring  the  cause  of  the  arrange- 
ment he  was  told  by  an  official  high  in  au- 
thority that  during  the  Saddia  dynasty,  a  king, 
on  the  march  with  his  army  to  the  Soudan, 
encamped  on  the  spot,  and  that  the  pegs  to 
which  his  horses  were  picketed  were  cut  from 
an  adjacent  olive  grove,  and  each  one  became 
a  tree.  This  explanation  he  regarded  as  fab- 
ulous, but  goes  on  to  relate  that  he  had  occa- 
sion to  plant  some  fruit-trees  in  a  garden. 
The  person  employed  to  make  the  plantation 
procured  some  olive-branches,  cut  them  up 
into  pieces  a  foot  long,  sharpened  one  end 
with  a  knife,  and  proceeded  to  drive  them 
into  the  ground  with  a  stone.  Supposing  the 
fellow  was  imposing  upon  him,  he  ordered 
him  away ;  but  on  being  assured  that  it  was 
the  usual  method,  he  allowed  him  to  proceed, 
and  each  peg  grew  into  a  thrifty  olive-tree. 

Engrafting  the  better  varieties  upon  wild  stocks  greatly  increa.'^es  the  i)ro- 
duction  of  fruit. 

Preparation  of  olive  oil.  —  The  fruit  is  crushed  in  a  mill,  the  pulp  then  placed 
in  woollen  bags  and  subjected  to  pressure  and  the  api)lication  of  hot  water. 
The  oil  is  skimmed  off  the  water  and  placed  in  tul)s,  barrels,  bottles,  crocks 
(a  sort  of  earthen  jar  or  pot),  and  other  vessels.  In  the  remote  districts,  where 
it  is  made  in  small  quantities,  it  is  taken  to  market  in  bottles  made  of  goat- 
skins. On  that  part  of  the  Italian  peninsula  skirting  flie  mouth  of  the 
Adriatic,  the  entire  country  is  an  olive  orchard.  In  the  oil  .•<ea.'?on.  hundreds 
of  mules  and  donkeys  crowd  the  highways  going  into  fJallipoli,  the  seaport, 
laden  with  oil,  where  mav  l)e  seen  at  the  same  time  fifteen  to  twenty  ships 
taking  in  their  cargoes  of  oil  and  olives.  When  the  oil  is  first  brought  in 
from  the  mills  it  is  emptied  into  a  large  vat,  or  cistern,  at  which  time  it  is 
dark  and  turbid.  After  remaining  for  some  months  in  this  ma.ss.  ir  settles. 
becomes  clarified,  and  takes  on  a  beautiful  amber  color,  when  it  is  drawn  off 


Olea  Europ^a  (Olive). 


180  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY, 

into  barrels  and  other  vessels  for  shipping  to  the  United  States,  England, 
France,  Genoa,  and  elsewhere.  The  best  oil  comes  from  Florence,  and  was 
formerly  shipped  exclusively  in  glass  flaslvs,  called  Florentine  Hasks. 

Use.  —  The  olive  is  eaten  when  in  an  under-ripe  state.  The  taste  is  bitter 
and  slightly  astringent,  hence  a  taste  for  it  must  be  acquired.  The  fruit  is 
put  up  in  either  glass  or  wood,  and  preserved  in  salt.  To  prepare  it  for  the 
table  it  is  soal^ed  in  water,  and  afterwards  placed  in  vinegar  or  oil.  The 
principal  use  of  the  olive  is  for  the  manufacture  of  oil.  The  oil  obtained  from 
the  olive  is  esteemed  for  its  soft,  delicate  Havor,  and  is  largely  used  for  culi- 
nary purposes  and  for  table  use,  for  salad  dressings,  etc.  It  is  also  an  excel- 
lent lubricator,  and  valuable  for  illuminating  purposes.  It  solidifies  at  10°  to 
15°  Fahrenheit.  Its  specific  gravity  is  .9176  ;  it  is  frequently  adulterated  with 
cotton-seed  oil,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  .9300. 

The  wood  of  the  olive-tree  is  hard,  of  a  fine,  close  grain,  and  takes  an  excel- 
lent polish  ;  it  is  used  largely  by  turners  for  the  manufacture  of  small  articles. 
The  root  is  esteemed  on  account  of  its  gnarls  and  curls. 

Order  XXXVI.    LOGANIACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular,  in  axillary  or  teriiiiiial  cymes  ;  calyx,  with 
united  sepals,  valvate  in  the  bud,  or  4  to  5  free  imbricated  sepals  ; 
corolla  hypogynous,  with  sepals  united,  wheel-shaped,  or  bell-shaped ; 
limb  5-10-cleft,  sometimes  4-lobed ;  stamens  on  the  corolla  equal 
to  and  alternate  with  its  lobes ;  filaments  thread-like  or  awl-shaped ; 
ovary  superior,  2-4:-celled  ;  style  thread-like ;  stigma  shield-shaped ; 
ovules  numerous.  Fruit  a  capsule  or  berry.  Trees  and  shrubs.  Leaves 
simple,  opposite  or  whorled. 

No.  of  genera,  30  ;  species,  350  ;  mostly  tropical. 

STRYCHNOS,  L.  Calyx  somewhat  bell-shaped,  or  wheel-shaped,  with 
4  lobes,  whose  edges  just  meet ;  stamens  4  or  5,  on  the  corolla ;  fila- 
ments short,  attached  to  the  backs  of  the  short  anthers  ;  ovary  2-celled ; 
style  thread-like.  Fruit  a  berry,  globular,  covering  hard,  and  without 
valves.  Leaves  opposite.  Flowers  in  cymes,  axillary  or  terminal, 
small  and  white. 

1.  S.  nux  vomica,  L.  (Nux  Vomica.)  Stem  from  20  to  3.5  feet  high  ;  bark 
smooth,  gray ;  much-branched,  the  branchlets  swollen  or  knotted  at  the  nodes. 
Leaves  5-nerved,  with  2  ribs  each  side  of  the  midrib,  reaching  from  the  base 
to  the  apex,  ovate,  pointed  ;  calyx  tubular,  5  toothed ;  corolla  tubular,  greenish- 
white,  lengthened  ;  limb  5-parted,  parts  lanceolate  ;  stamens  5  ;  anthers  erect ; 
pistil  longer  than  the  stamens ;  stigma  globose.  Fruit  as  large  as  a  middling- 
sized  orange,  with  a  hard,  bitter,  smooth,  yellow  peel,  inclosing  fleshy  pulp,  in 
which  are  embedded  a  number  of  flat,  circular  seeds,  concave  on  one  side  and 
convex  on  the  other,  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  cov- 
ered with  a  gray,  velvety  down,  hard  and  horny,  containing  a  gummy,  resinous 
matter,  soluble  in  alcohol.     Wood  hard,  bitter,  and  very  durable. 

Chemistry.  —  The  seeds  yield  to  the  chemist  two  substances,  —  strychnine 
and  brucine. 

Strychnine,  C^x  ^22  ^2  Og- 

Brucine,  Cga  H21  Ng  O4. 


I/XiANIACET^C. 


181 


Brucine  differs  little  in  composition 
its  poisouous  ijualitit'S.     These  two  sul 


troiii  stryclmiiie,  but  is  not  so  active  in 
stances  in  combination  form  one  of  the 
most  active  poisons  known.  Strychnine  is  intensely  bitter;  one  grain  gives  to 
110  gallons  of  water  a  jierceptible  bitter  taste.  It  requires  2,000  parts  of 
boilin"-  water  to  dissolve  it ;  but  alcohol  suspends  it  more  readily,  and  it  is 
very  soluble  in  chloroform. 

2.  S.  Ignatii,  Herg.  The  seeds  of  this  species  are  said  to  be  far  richer  in  the 
yield  of  strychnine  than  the  nux  vomica.  The  tree  is  native  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  The  seeds  are  known  in  commerce  as  the  beans  of  St.  Ignatius. 
They  were  brought  to  the  notice  of  Ray,  the  English  botanist,  in  1699,  by  a 
Jesuit,  who  obtained  them  through  missionaries. 

3.  S.  colubrina  (Snakewood),  L.,  yields  strychnine  from  the  wood  of  the 
root. 

4.  S.  tieute.  Lech,  yields  it  from  the  bark  of  che  root. 

5.  S.  potatorum,  L.  (Clearing  Nut.)  Like  the  nux  vomica,  but  a  larger 
tree;  fruit  similar  iu  form,  but  does  not  possess  the  same  poisonous  qualities. 
Found    iu   the    mountains  of    East  Indies. 

The  pulp  is  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  the 
seeds  are  used  to  purify  water.  One  of  the 
seeds  is  rubbed  smartly  upon  the  sides  of  a 
water  vessel,  which  is  then  filled  with  water, 
that  in  a  very  short  time  becomes  clear  and 
pure ;  the  effect  of  the  seed  is  to  ])recipi- 
tate  not  only  suspended  vegetable  matter, 
but  impurities  of  every  sort.  This  effect 
is  attributed  to  some  albuminoid  property 
of  the  seed. 

When  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  is  attacked  by 
birds  and  climbing  animals:  they  eat  the 
rind,  and  throw  down  the  pulp  and  seeds. 
The  seeds  are  collected,  washed,  and  sold 
to  country  merchants  for  a  quarter  of  a 
cent  a  pound. 

6.  S.  toxifsra.  Hth.,  found  in  the  silvas 
of  the  Amazon  and  Oronoco,  furnislios  the 
celebrated  poison,  curari,  with  which  the 
natives  prepare  their  arrows  for  battle. 
The  poison  resides  in  a  resin  found  in  the 

bark  of  the  tree,  and  is  separated  by  maceration  in  wau-r.  The  substance 
is  harmless  when  taken  into  the  stomadi,  but  fatal  when  introduced  into  the 
blood.  Tlie  preparation  for  the  poisoned  arrows  is  a  mixture  of  the  product 
of  several  different  species,  but  the  mode  of  preparation  is  a  secret. 

(rcograpki/.  —  Those  trees  are  tro])icnl  and  subtropical,  natives  of  In<lia  and 
the  islands  s(Mith  of  Asia. 

Fti/mo/offy.  — The  name  stt-i/chuos:  is  from  the  Cireek  word,  arpuxt'os.  which 
signifies  to  "strew"  or  "  throw  down,"  in  fancied  allusion  to  the  stupefying 
effects  it  produces  upon  tlie  animal  system.  \ur  rnniira  signifies  /o"/  »"', — 
from  the  Latin  n;<.r,  a  nut,  and  vomini,  a  plague  or  loathsome  disease,  alluding 
to  its  poisonous  ((ualities  hjuntil  is  named  after  .*>/.  Ignatius.  Coluhr'mn, 
Latin,  is  a  general  name  fur  innocuous  ser])Pnts.  hence  also  snnke  taml .     Chettik 


Strychnon  n»ix  vomica  (Nux  Voniiia). 


182  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

is  the  Javanese  name  for  the  S.  tieute,  which  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  tieute'  is 
probably  derived  from  chettik.  Potatorum,  Latin,  drinking,  and  clearing  nut, 
are  names  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  used  in  the  East  Indies  for  clearing  muddy 
water.  Toxifera,  from  Greek  to^ikov,  poison,  and  (pepeiv,  bear,  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  Indians  use  it  to  poison  their  arrows. 

History.  — This  poison  was  discovered  by  the  chemists  Telletier  and  Caven- 
ton  in  the  seeds  of  Strychnos  Ignatii  and  S.  nux  vomica. 

Use.  —  The  medical  properties  are  stimulant,  tonic,  and  narcotic,  —  and  it 
is  used  as  a  remedy  in  rheumatic  paralysis  and  lead  poisoning.  In  large 
doses  it  attacks  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  producing  dizziness,  contraction  of 
the  heart,  and  muscular  spasms.  Thirty  grains  of  the  powdered  nut  have 
proved  fatal,  and  three  grains  of  the  extract.  Half  a  grain  taken  by  mistake 
caused  the  death  of  Dr.  Warner.  It  is  said  that  swine  and  goats  are  not 
injured  by  it.  It  enters  into  the  medical  preparations  of  homoeopathic  prac- 
titioners for  stomach  disorders,  and  is  by  them  regarded  as  a  specific  in 
dyspepsia.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  United  States  to  destroy  vermin,  and 
especially  animals  and  birds  injurious  to  agriculture. 

It  has  been  charged  that  large  quantities  of  strychnine  are  used  in  the 
preparation  of  whiskey ;  this  is  a  mistake,  as  its  intensely  bitter  properties 
would  render  the  liquor  unpalatable  and  unsalable.  The  wood  is  hard,  dura- 
ble, and  takes  a  good  polish ;  some  of  the  species  yield  a  snake-wood. 

The  spinal  cord  is  the  seat  of  strychnine  poisoning,  and  the  effects  are  inter- 
mittent tetanic  convulsions.  In  some  cases  the  respiratory  muscles  become 
rigid,  and  death  ensues  from  suffocation.  Large  doses  of  opium  are  said  to 
neutralize  the  effects  of  strychnine. 

Order  XXXVIl.    BORRAGINACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  usually  regular,  axillary  or  terminal,  solitary,  or 
mostly  in  1-sided  scorpioid  cymes ;  calyx  persistent ;  sepals  united, 
4-5-parted ;  corolla  regular,  with  scales  under  the  middle  of  lobes, 
hypogynous,  with  united  petals,  deciduous,  bell-shaped  or  wheel-shaped  ; 
throat  naked,  or  clothed  with  hairs  or  scales ;  limb  5-lobed,  imbricate 
in  the  bud  ;  stamens  5,  on  the  throat  of  corolla,  alternate  with  its 
divisions.  Fruit,  4  distinct,  nut-like  akenes,  sometimes  united  in 
pairs.     Mostly  rough,  hairy.     Herbs. 

No.  of  genera,  68;  species,  1,200;  cosmopolitan. 

SYMPHYTUM,  Tourn.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  tubular,  bell-shaped ; 
mouth  closed  by  5  awl-shaped  scales,  forming  a  cone.  Fruit  smooth 
and  ovoid.     A  perennial  herb. 

S.  officinale,  L.  (Comfrey. )  Stem  stout,  winged,  4  feet  high,  branching  towards 
the  top,  hairy.  Leaves  large,  coarse,  petioled,  lower  ones  broad,  lanceolate, 
upper  ones  lanceolate.  Flowers  in  racemes,  and  terminal ;  sepals  lanceolate ; 
border  of  corolla  divided  into  5  recurved  teeth  ;  yellow,  white,  pink,  or  red, 

Var.  Bohemicum,  Sch.  has  bright  red  flowers. 

Geography. — The  geographical  range  of  this  plant  is  not  great,  but  it 
grows  well  about  the  middle  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  is  found  throughout 
middle  Europe  and  the  older  parts  of  the  United  States  of  America. 


rONVOTvVn.ACE^E. 


188 


(Tvv,  tof^ether,  n\\(\  r)>vr6v,  a 
mucilage  contaiued  in  the 


Etiimnlnrjy.  —  Sijinphutum    is    fmni    the    Greek 
plant,  in  allusion  to  the  gummy  character  ..f  the 
root  of  this  plant.     Comfrey,  from  the  Latin 
ronfirnmre,  strenrjthen,  owes  its  name  to  its 
healing  properties. 

History. —  'V\\\s  plant  is  indigenous  to  the 
Peloponnesus  and  Greek  islands,  whence  it 
has  worked  its  way  westward  to  the  British 
Isles ;  it  was  introduced  by  European  colo- 
nists into  northeast  America,  where  it  has 
become  naturalized  about  old  dwellings  and 
around  ruins,  having  escaped  from  gardens. 
It  loves  damp,  rich  soil. 

^se.  —  The  root  abounds  in  a  gummy, 
glue-like  mucilage;  a  decoction  of  it  is  used 
to  bind  up  wounds.  It  is  also  used  for 
throat  and  lung  troubles,  on  account  of  the 
soothing  properties  of  its  mucilage.  It  is 
grateful  in  irritable  stomach  complaints. 
It  likewise  serves  as  a  remedy  for  bleeding 

at  the  lungs ;  and  the  bruised  heated  root  is  sometimes  applied  to  wounds 
in  the  form  of  a  poultice. 


Symphytttm  officinale  (Comfrey). 


Order  XXXVIII.    CONVOLVULACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular;  peduncles  axillary  or  terminal,  simple  or 
dichotomous,  usually  bibracteate ;  calyx  5-sepaled,  usually  free  and  per- 
sistent ;  corolla  hypogynous ;  petals  united  and  funnel-shaped,  twisted 
in  the  bud;  stamens  5,  inserted  at  the  bottom  of  the  corolla-tube, 
alternating  with  its  lobes ;  filaments  swollen  below,  thread-like  above  ; 
style  simple,  or  nearly  so ;  seeds  few,  2  in  each  of  the.2-3  cells  of  the 
ovary.  Fruit  capsular ;  carpels  connate.  Herbaceous,  woody,  or  sub- 
woody  plants,  climbing  or  trailing. 

No.  of  genera,  32 ;  .species,  800 ;  cosmopolitan  ;  mo.stly  in  warm 
sands. 

IPOMCEA,  L.  Calyx  .>parted  ;  sepals  green  ;  corolla  salver  or  funnel- 
shaped,  spreading;  number  of  stamens  5  in  the  throat;  style  simple, 
terminated  by  a  head-shaped  stigma,  which  is  sometimes  2-lobed ; 
seed-ves.sel  2-  or  3-valved,  2-  or  spuriously  4-  or  3-celled ;  seeds  4-6. 

1.  I.  batatas,  Lam.  (Sweet  Potato.)  Ovary  spuriously  4-celled  ;  stem  from 
2  to  10  feet  long,  creeping  and  rooting  at  every  node,  from  an  eighth  to  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  dianif^ter.  Leaves  very  variable,  usually  triangular  or 
3-lobed  ;  general  outline  heart  shaped,  the  sinus  at  the  base  bri>ad.  .'i-veined, 
smooth  ';  blade  2  to  ^  inches  long.  ..n  lone:  petioles.  Flowers  on  long  peduncles. 
2  to  .5  in  a  cluster,  jturple  ;  root  gives  rise  to  loni^.  spindle-shaped  tubers.  Au 
herbaceous  perennial. 

Geography.  — Thv  sweet  p«>tato  is  lar^^ely  cultivated  in  soutliern  United 
States,  and  conips  tc  perfection  a*  far  north  as  t]w  ("arolinas.  North  of  North 
Carolina  it  was  not  formerly  supposed  to  he  perfect ;  but  for  the  last  (juarter 


184 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


of  a  century  it  has  been  successfully  cultivated  as  a  market-crop  in  eastern 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Delaware,  and  southern  New  Jersey ;  in  fact  the  sweets, 
as  they  are  called  in  New  York  market,  from  south  Jersey  are  as  popular  as 
the  Carolinas.  It  is  grown  in  southern  Spain  and  Italy,  The  British  Isles 
are  too  damp  for  it. 

Etijmoloyij.  —  Ipomoea,  the  generic  name,  is  derived  by  Loudon  from  the 
Greek  iy^,  a  worm,  and  oixoios,  like,  —  like  a  worm.  Batatas  comes  from  the 
Spanish  batata,  the  native  name  of  the  sweet  potato.  Potato  is  a  corruption 
of  batatas,  and  siveet  refers  to  the  taste  of  this  species. 

History.  —  Its  home  is  held  by  some  authorities  to  be  America;  by  others, 
Asia ;  and  there  seem  to  be  good  reasons  for  believing  it  to  be  indigenous 
both  to  Asia  and  America.  It  was  introduced  into  southern  Europe  by  the 
Spaniards  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America.     It  now  forms  an  important 

article  of  food  throughout  tropical  and 
subtropical  countries,  and  needs  a  high 
temperature  to  develop  the  peculiar 
delicate  sweet  taste. 

It  is  not  known  when  this  tuber  was 
introduced  into  the  kitchen. 

Cultivation. — The  mode  of  cultivat- 
ing the  sweet  potato  is  to  place  the 
tubers  in  a  hot-bed,  where  they  sprout. 
The  sprouts,  when  six  to  ten  inches 
long,  are  taken  off  and  transplanted,  in 
the  same  manner  as  cabbage-plants  are 
treated.  They  grow  to  greatest  per- 
fection as  to  quality  in  loose  sand.  A 
shovelful  of  well-rotted  barnyard  man- 
ure is  dropped,  and  over  it  with  a  hoe 
is  formed  a  conical  hill,  in  the  top  of 
which  the  plant  is  transplanted  ;  in 
about  two  mouths  tlie  tubers  begin  to 
form  about  the  base  of  the  plant,  which 
by  that  time  has  become  a  prostrate  vine,  six  to  ten  feet  in  length,  rooting  at 
every  node.  A  part  of  the  labor  of  cultivating  is  the  destruction  of  tliese 
rootlets,  by  frequently  lifting  the  vine  from  the  ground,  which  violence  breaks 
them. 

Use.  —  The  sweet  potato  in  tropical  and  subtropical  countries  is  an  article 
of  food  of  vast  importance.  The  rudest  modes  of  cooking  are  roasting  and 
boiling,  but  it  is  also  largely  used  for  pies,  custards,  and  other  delicacies  ;  it  is 
also  minced  while  raw,  roasted  with  Maracaibo  coffee,  tlien  ground  and  sold 
for  coffee.  It  is  in  common  use  in  the  southern  and  middle  States  as  a 
vegetable  at  breakfast  and  dinner. 

2.  I.  purga,  Hayne.  (Bindweed  Jalap.)  Stems  twining,  12  feet  long,  many 
from  the  same  glol)ular,  tuberous,  fleshy  root ;  branched.  Leaves  alternate, 
on  stout  foot-stalks,  which  are  4  to  5  inches  long ;  base  cordate,  lobes  pointed, 
narrowed  at  the  apex,  entire,  smooth  both  sides,  paler  beneath,  with  con- 
spicuous veins.  Flowers  in  cymes,  axillary,  few-flowered  ;  peduncles  long  and 
twisted  •,  pedicels  bracted  ;  calyx,  short,  smooth,  5-parted  ;  corolla  large,  tubu- 
lar, with  flattened,  spreading  limb,  contracted  just  where  the  limb  begins  to 
flatten,  dull  pink ;  stamens  inserted  in  the  tube  near  the  base ;  filaments  flat- 
tened, three  longer  than  the  other  two,  all  extending  beyond  the  mouth  of 


Ipom(EA  batatas  (Sweet  Potato). 


SOL  AN  ACE.*:.  185 

corolla-tul.e.  anthers  small  ;  ovary  taporin^^  int.,  tl.e  sUMiU-r  «tyle  wlm-h  is  a 
it  le  ioniser  than  the  stamens,  2-celle.l,  2  ovules  in  each  cell  The  root  .s 
somewhat  the  si.e  and  shape  of  a  me.linn.-size.l  Swe.iish  turn.,,,  tuherous  m 
character  giving  off  stems  from  all  points  near  the  crown  ;  Heshy  and  soft 
when  <rro'wing,  very  hard  when  dry.     Perennial. 

Geoiaphu  -Its  home  is  in  the  high  lands  of  Mexico,  near  the  20th  par- 
allel, a  rainv  district ;  it  grows  at  an  elevation  of  four  to  six  thousand  eet 
above  the  sea  level.  It  is  now  cultivate.!  in  British  India,  m  correspond  ng 
latitn.les  and  altitudes  to  its  American  home.  Tiie  species  and  its  l.K-ahty 
were  in  doubt  till  1829,  when  Dr  Coxe  of  Philadelphia  obtained  living  plants 
from  Mexico,  ami  settled  the  .luestion.  r      ,i  .  .  Uut 

Ftmolonu.-Pinga,  the  specific  name,  is  the  Spanish  name  for  tiie  plant 
and  iiulicates  its  me.licinal  property.  Jalap,  the  popular  name,  is  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  city  Xalapa  in  Mexico,  near  which  the  plant  was  h.>t 

^'' //tor//. -It  was  carried  to  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  for  its  me.li.inal 
properties  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  ,•    n     .     f 

Preparation.  -The  medicinal  properties  reside  lu  a  resiu  found  in  the  r..ot. 
The  root  when  in  perfect  condition,  yields  about  20  per  cent  of  the  resin. 

The  r.)ots  are  washed,  and  the  larger  ones  cut  into  slices  and  suspen.lo.l 
in  nets  over  fires  till  .Iry,  when  they  are  very  hard;  they  are  then  ready  f.,r 

*  V^^'^-The  me.licinal  properties  of  jalap  are  especially  cathartic;  when 
a.lminiscered  in  small  doses  it  is  alterative,  and,  in  still  smaller  doses  tonic, 
lu  .,rdinarv  doses  it  is  a  safe  but  violent  cathartic  ;  ginger  mixed  with  it  modi- 
fies its  activity.  It  was  f.,rmcrlv  administered  with  calomel.  Its  tincture 
constitutes  a  part  of  the  black  draught,  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  very  valuable 
cathartic  in  brain  troubles.  Though  violent,  it  does  not  irritate  an.l  inflame 
the  intestinal  canal,  and  is  hence  a  safe  medicine. 

Order  XXXIX     SOLANACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  generally  regular,  axillary  or  terminal,  solitary,  fas- 
cicled, or  subcorymbose ;  calyx,  with  sepals  united,  usually  .5-lobed  or 
tooth.'d,  occasionallv  4  to  6,  persistent;  corolla  hypogynous ;  petals 
united,  rotate  or  campanulate ;  segments  5,  rarely  4  to  G,  folded  or 
twisted  in  the  bud ;  stamens  on  the  corolla-tube  equal  and  alternate 
with  its  segments,  sometimes  united  at  top ;  ovary  2-5-celled ;  ovules 
many.  Fmit  varied  in  form,  frequently  a  many-seeded,  pulpy  berry, 
sometimes  a  dry  capsule.     Herbaceous  or  woody  plants,  with  watery 

juice.  .  ^,        ,  , 

No.  of  genera,  ()(i:  species,  1,200;  foun.l  in  wanner  parts  ot  the  old 
world,  and  in  temperate  parts  of  America. 

LYCOPERSICUM.  '!'..uin.  Calvx  .")-  or  10-parted.  persi.stent;  corolla 
wheel-sliap.Ml,  tube  short ;  limb  plicated,  with  f,  to  10  lobes;  stamens, 
5  or  6  in  th.-  throat  of  the  corolla,  protruding ;  filaments  short ;  anthers 
oblono'-conical,  cohering  by  an  elongated  m.Mubrane  at  top,  opening 
lenothwise  on  the  inner  side.  Fruit  a  berry,  varying  from  a  prolate 
spheroid  to  subglobular,  usually  an  oblate  spheroid  or  flattened  globe, 
pulpy,  and  many-.seeded.     Annual. 


186 


DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 


L.  esculentum,  Mill.  (Tomato.  WoK  Peach.)  Stem  2  to  5  feet  high, 
branching,  or  straggling  over  shrubbery,  prostrate  when  not  supported. 
Leaves  pinnately  divided,  alternate  pairs  of  leaflets  very  small.  Flowers  in 
raceme-like  clusters,  common  flower-stalk  about  2  inches  long,  forked ;  sepals 
5  to  10,  linear-lanceolate,  spreading  ;  anthers  united,  pointed,  with  the  points 
turned  back.  Fruit  1  to  5  inches  in  diameter,  usually  red,  sometimes  yel- 
lowish.    Flowers  June  to  August.     Fruit  ripens  August  to  September. 

The  bruised  leaves  of  the  tomato  emit  a  peculiar,  disagreeable  odor.  Like 
other  plants  that  grow  from  seed,  it  sports  freely,  producing  varieties  that 
differ  mostly  in  size,  shape,  aTid  quality  of  the  fruit.  Some  of  the  larger  fruit 
is  very  irregular,  with  deep  grooves  and  alternate  ridges ;  the  favorites  with 
market-gardeners  and  amateurs  are  the  medium-sized,  smooth-fruited  varieties. 

Some  are  very  small, 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter, 
and  globular,  called 
plum  and  cherry  toma- 
toes ;  others  small,  pear- 
shaped.  The  last  two 
varieties  are  esteemed  for 
preserves  and  pickles. 

Geography.  —  It  grows 
and  fruits  well  in  all 
southern  Europe,  espe- 
cially in  Italy  and  south- 
ern France  and  Spain, 
in  Greece  and  northern 
Africa.  It  has  been 
taken  by  Europeans  to 
the  islands  of  soutliern 
Asia  and  contiguous 
parts  of  the  continent ; 
is  fruited  in  England, 
but  under  glass ;  and  is 
an  important  crop  in 
eastern  United  States,  especially  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas,  and  is  sent  north  as  an  early  vegetable. 

Etymology.  —  Lycopersicum  is  derived  from  the  Greek  words  Xvkos,  a  wolf, 
and  irepa-iKov,  a  peach.  The  application  is  not  apparent.  Esciilentum,  the 
specific  name,  is  of  Latin  origin,  signifying  "eatable."  Tomato,  the  common 
name,  is  the  native  South  or  Central  American  name,  carried  to  Europe  by 
the  Spaniards-,  its  meaning  is  unknown. 

History.  —  It  is  native  to  South  and  Central  America,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  cultivated  in  Mexico  at  an  ancient  date.  DeCandolle  thinks  it  was 
first  found  by  Europeans  under  cultivation  in  Peru.  It  was  taken  to  Europe 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  Europeans  ;  it  came 
suddenly  into  pretty  general  use  in  the  eastern  United  States  after  1840,  and 
is  now  one  of  the  most  popular  and  important  table  vegetables  of  the  country. 
It  is  in  very  general  use  also  in  southern  Europe. 

Use.  —  The  tomato  is  used  raw  as  a  salad,  cooked  as  a  sauce  with  meats, 
used  to  flavor  gravies  and  soups,  and  is  found  very  generally  on  the  tables  of 
both  rich  and  poor  throughout  the  United  States  and  Europe. 


Lycopersicum  esculentum  (Tomato). 


SOLANACE^.. 


187 


NICOTIANA,  Tourn.  (Tohacco.)  Calyx  tul)ular,  hairy,  divided  into 
5  parts,  divisions  narrow  and  [)()inted,  half  as  long  as  the  corolla-tube; 
corolla  funnel-shaped,  tuhe  liairy  ;  linih  divided  into  5  sharp  segments, 
turned  back,  reddish  ;  filaments  5,  curved  inwards,  terminating  in  a 
lengthened,  slender  style,  crowned  with  a  round  cleft  stigma.  Seed- 
vessel  divided  into  2  cells  ^  seeds  small,  round,  and  numerous.  Flowers 
in  July  and  August  in  America. 

1.  N.  tabacum,  L.  Stem  round,  terete,  hairy,  4  to  6  feet  high,  stout  and 
leafy  (iu  cultivatiou).  Root  large  and  fibrous;  bracts  linear  and  pointed. 
Leaves  10  to  25  inches  long,  and  8  to  10  inches  broad,  entire,  oblong,  strongly 
veined,  pointed  and  sessile.  Flowers  terminal,  in  loose  panicles,  rose-color. 
July. 

2.  N.  rustica,  L.  Stem  3  to  5  feet 
high,  round,  terete,  and  stout.  Leaves 
petioled,  ovate,  and  shorter  than  in  No.  1 ; 
segments  of  the  corolla  rounded.  The 
whole  plant  is  smaller  and  more  hardy 
than  No.  1,  and  is  cultivated  further 
north. 

There  are  several  other  species,  among 
which  are ;  — 

3.  N.  macrophylla,  Lehm.  (Great- 
leaved.)  Leaves  very  large,  clasping, 
ovate,  and  eared  at  the  base ;  corolla 
inflated  at  tlie  mouth. 

4.  N.  Persica,  Lindl.  Lower  leaves 
oblong,  upper  ones  lanceolate  and  sessile; 
corolla  salver-shaped  ;  tubule  elongated. 
Cultivated  in  Persia,  and  furnishes  the 
celebrated  Shiraz  tobacco. 

.5.  N!  repanda,  W.  ( Wavy  Tobacco.) 
Leaves  clasping,  cordate,  spatulate,  re- 
pand  ;  tube  of  corolla  long  and  slender. 
Cultivated  in  Culia. 

6.  N.    quadrivalvis,    Pursh.       (Four- 

valved  Tt)bacco.)  Stem  branched.  Leaves  petioled,  oblong;  corolla-tube 
twice  as  long  as  the  calyx,  segments  obtu.se;  capsule  4-valved,  round.  Found 
under  cultivation  among  the  Indians  in  the  Missouri  valley. 

7.  N.  nana,  Lindl.  (Dwarf  Tobacco.)  Leaves  lanceolate  .  whole  plant 
smaller  than  any  other  species.  Found  under  cultivation  among  the  savages 
of  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  river. 

Geoqraphji  — Tobacco  arrives  at  the  greatest  perfection  on  virgin  soil,  or 
what  the  agriculturist  calls  "  new  land."  It  grows  well  in  all  parts  south  of 
the  middle  of  the  temperate  zones  and  in  the  tropics.  'I'he  best  (lualitie.s  are 
rai.sed  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  the  Carolinas,  Venezuela.  Tuba,  and  Brazil. 
It  has  been  of  late  years  an  important  crop  iti  sorno  parts  of  the  Middle  At- 
lantic States,  especially  Coiuiecticnt  and  Pennsylvania 

In  Great  Britain  the  p^rowing  of  tobacco  i.s  prohibited  by  law,  as  a  large 
portion  of  the  national  revenue  consists  of  duty  on  its  importation      It  is  an 


NiroTiANA  TABAci'M  (Tobacco). 


188  DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 

importaut  crop  in  Holland,  Flanders,  France,  Alsace,  Hungary,  and  European 
Turkey. 

Tobacco  of  a  good  marketable  quality  is  raised  in  the  Levant.  Large  quan- 
tities of  an  excellent  quality  are  produced  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  in  China, 
and  Japan.  The  Dutch  introduced  its  cultivation  into  south  Africa,  and  the 
English  have  recently  commenced  its  culture  in  Australia.  The  quality  of 
that  raised  north  of  the  middle  of  the  temperate  zones,  as  in  Europe,  is  not 
so  good. 

Etymoloqij.  —  Nicotlana,  the  generic  name,  was  given  to  this  plant  in  honor 
of  John  Nicot,  a  French  statesman,  who  was  instrumental  in  bringing  it  under 
cultivation  in  France.  Tabacum  is  derived  by  some  from  tabaco,  the  name 
used  by  the  American  aborigines  to  indicate  the  instrument  or  pipe  they  used 
to  smoke  the  dried  leaves  of  the  plant.  Others  derive  it  from  Tobago,  in  the 
West  Indies,  others  from  Tabasco,  in  Mexico.  The  common  name  tobacco 
is  derived  from  the  same  source.  The  other  specific  names  explain  them- 
selves ;  as,  rustica,  of  the  field  or  the  country ;  macrophylla,  large-leaved, 
or  long-leaved  ;  Perslca,  grown  in  Persia ;  repanda,  wavy,  or  sinuate-leaved  ; 
quadrivalvis,  seed-vessel  with  four  valves  ;  nana,  small,  or  dwarf. 

History.  —  Soon  after  the  permanent  settlement  of  North  America,  learned 
societies  and  some  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  became  interested  in  the 
natural  history  of  the  New  World.  They  sent  over  men  devoted  to  the  study  of 
nature  to  collect  specimens  of  the  animals  and  other  objects  of  interest  to  ])e 
found  in  Virginia,  the  name  applied  at  that  time  to  the  large  tract  of  land 
claimed  by  the  English.  Among  the  naturalists  sent  out  were  enthusiastic 
botanists,  who  made  large  collections  of  plants  and  seeds,  and  conveyed  them 
to  the  Old  World. 

In  their  explorations  they  found  a  plant,  the  dried  leaves  of  which  the 
aborigines  smoked  in  an  instrument  called  by  them  tabaco.  The  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  dialect  of  the  sa^-ages  possessed  by  the  Europeans  at  that 
time  led  to  the  error  that  the  substance  they  smoked  was  called  tabaco, 
instead  of  the  pipe  through  which  they  smoked  it.  Another  history  of  the 
origin  of  the  name  is  that  a  Spanish  monk  found  the  plant  growing  in 
Tobago,  a  province  of  St.  Domingo. 

It  was  introduced  into  Portugal  in  1558,  by  Dr  Fernandes,  and  thence  into 
Spain  in  1559,  where  it  was  grown  as  a  medicinal  plant.  John  Nicot,  a  French 
statesman,  who  was  at  that  time  minister  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  sent  seed 
to  Queen  Catherine  de  Medicis,  who  caused  it  to  be  cultivated  in  France ;  and 
on  account  of  the  interest  she  took  in  its  culture,  it  received  the  name  of 
Queen's  Herb.  On  account  of  the  instrumentality  of  John  Nicot  in  its  intro- 
duction into  France,  Tournefort,  a  French  botanist,  named  it  Nicotiana. 

Ralph  Lane,  the  first  governor  of  Virginia,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  In-ought 
to  England  in  1586  the  implements  and  material  for  tobacco  smoking,  which 
they  handed  over  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Lane  is  credited  with  having  been 
the  first  p]nglish  smoker;  and  through  the  influence  and  example  of  the  illus- 
trious Raleigh,  the  habit  of  smoking  soon  became  rooted  among  the  English. 
The  custom  was  carried  into  Holland  by  young  Englishmen  who  went  there 
to  prosecute  their  studies. 

In  less  than  fifty  years  after  the  tobacco-plant  was  fir.st  cultivated  in  Portu 
gal  the  custom  of  smoking  it  spread  over  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  Java,  China, 
and  Japan.  This  rapid  spread  is  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  the  ease  with  which 
the  plant  is  cultivated  throughout  the  temperate  zones  where  rich  soil  Ls 
found. 


SOLANACE^..  189 

It  is  claimed  by  the  Chiuese  that  they  cultivated  and  used  tobacco  before 
the  discovery  of  America  :  yet  recent  investi<^ati()iis  have  developed  the  fact 
that  the  plant  cultivated  there  is  a  variety  of  the  species  most  commonly  culti- 
vated in  America,  and  has  no  characteristic  difference,  except  such  as  differ- 
ent soils  and  modes  of  cultivation  would  induce. .  But  the  strongest  argument 
is  that  the  eastern  hmguages  have  no  name  for  it,  but  throughout  the  countries 
of  Asia  it  is  known  by  its  .\merican  name,  tobacco,  which  was  no  doubt 
obtained  from  tlie  Tortuguese  who  introduced  it  into  China  and  Japan. 

After  careful  examination  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  tobacco  was 
brought  to  tlie  n<jtice  of  civilized  man  in  the  West  Indies  soon  after  their  dis- 
covery, and  that  the  practice  of  smoking  it  originated  among  the  savages  of 
the  New  World. 

In  the  countries  where  the  use  of  tobacco  prevails,  27  of  every  40  adult 
males  are  wedded  to  the  custom.  An  account  of  the  efforts  to  suppress  the 
use  of  tobacco  that  have  been  made  by  medical  men  and  by  the  highest 
authority  constitutes  an  important  cha])ter  in  its  history. 

The  pope  at  one  time  lent  his  aid  to  its  suppression.  James  I.  of  f>nglaud, 
and  the  authorities  of  Russia  and  of  Turkey,  passed  stringent  laws  forbidding 
its  use,  and  executed  them  with  savage  barbarity.  For  using  tobacco,  men 
were  wiiipped,  their  noses  were  slit,  and  sometimes  cut  off.  In  Turkey  they 
were  bastinadoed  and  beheaded.  The  pope  thundered  his  bulls  of  excom- 
munication at  them. 

James  I.  of  England,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeentli  century,  published 
his  counterblast  against  tobacco,  in  which  he  undertook  to  show  how  unworthy 
it  is  for  a  civilized  nation  to  adopt  customs  from  such  barbarians  as  ihe  Ameri- 
can savages. 

Notwithstanding  this  royal  diatribe  and  many  others  that  have  followed  all 
along  down  through  the  history  of  tobacco,  its  use  lias  extended  to  every  nook 
and  corner  of  the  world  where  civilized  man  has  erected  his  habitation.  Good 
men  have  written  against  it  on  the  ground  of  its  immoral  effects.  Political 
economists  have  attacked  it  on  account  of  its  entire  uselessness.  Physicians 
have  fought  it  because  of  its  mischievous  effects  on  tlie  health  of  the  body  ; 
yet  it  has  crept  on  and  is  still  advancing. 

Cultivation.  —  The  plant  is  propagated  from  seed,  and  sports,  forming  varie- 
ties, many  of  which  are  under  cultivation  ;  but  le.ss  attention  has  been  paid  to 
obtaining  new  varieties  than  the  importance  of  the  plant  warrants. 

Chemistry.  —  Nicotiana  yields  to  the  chemist  eighteen  different  substances, 
the  most  important  and  characteristic  of  which  are  nicotine  and  nicotianin. 
Nicotine  is  composed  of  C.20  H14  N.,.  It  is  an  oily  li(|uid  without  color,  and 
one  of  the  most  active  poisons  known  ;  a  single  drop  ]>laced  upon  the  tongue 
of  a  serpent  causes  death  as  instantaneously  as  an  electric  shock.  It  is  an 
alkali  which  has  the  most  intense  affinity  for  acids ;  it  is  .«<oluble  in  alcohol, 
and  will  mix  with  water.  The  disagreeable,  sickening  effect  produced  by 
the  fumes  of  tobacco  burned  in  an  old  pij»e  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
nicotine. 

Nicotianin  contains  the  same  substances,  but  in  different  proportions,  and 
furnishes  the  odor  of  tobacco.  The  nicotic  property  appears  in  the  leaf  after 
fermentation.  ^ 

The.se  two  substances  are  accompanied  by  sixteen  others,  the  principal  of 
which  are  resin,  potassa,  rhlorine,  lime,  silica,  lli/nin,  and  qJutin  ;  and  the  whole 
plant  is  richer  in  nitrogen  than  any  other  vegetable  substance  that  has  l)een 
subjected  to  chemical  tests.     No  oue  of  the  substances  detected  in  tobacco 


190  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

possesses  any  nutritive  qualities,  and  no  animal  is  known  to  eat  it.  Man  alone 
has  found  a  use  tor  it. 

Use.  —  The  dried  leaves  are  used  to  chew  or  to  smoke.  They  undergo  various 
processes  as  preparation  for  chewing  and  smoking.  The  leaves  are  stripped 
from  the  stems,  dried,  and  then  rolled  into  cigars,  or  cut  by  machinery  into 
shreds  and  put  in  the  pipe ;  in  that  state  tobacco  is  also  cheAved.  It  is  also 
soaked  in  a  liquor  made  of  molasses  and  liquorice-water,  after  which  it  is 
pressed,  and  is  then  called  "  plug-tobacco." 

The  stems  and  other  refuse  parts  are  ground  into  snuff,  flavored  with  sub- 
stances to  suit  the  fancy  of  buyers  The  custom  of  snuffing  is  less  common 
than  formerly. 

Effects  upon  the  system.  —  When  administered  as  a  medicine  it  causes  a  sen- 
sation of  heat  in  the  throat,  and  a  feeling  of  warmth  in  the  stomach.  The 
effect  upon  the  system  generally  is  to  increase  the  activity  and  capacity  of  the 
absorbents,  and  dropsical  affections  sometimes  disappear  under  its  treatment. 
It  produces  nausea,  causing  vomiting  and  purging  when  administered  in  large 
doses,  and  gives  rise  to  an  indescribable  sinking  sensation  at  the  pit  of  the 
stomach  peculiar  to  itself.  It  sometimes  acts  as  an  anodyne,  and  occasionally 
promotes  sleep. 

Large  doses  bring  on  trembling  of  the  limbs,  faiutness,  dimness  of  sight, 
and  cold  sweats,  succeeded  by  convulsions,  paralysis,  and  torpor,  terminating 
in  death.  The  use  of  tobacco  as  a  luxury  is  followed  by  effects  which  are  very 
startling.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  it  has  an  injurious  effect  upon  the 
mind,  tending  to  enfeeble  it  and  rob  it  of  moral  energy,  impairing  the  memory, 
and  produ(?iug  a  low  grade  of  intellect. 

Tobacco-oil  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  poisons,  It  acts  on  the  brain  and 
nerve  cord,  first  .exciting,  then  lessening  their  activity ;  it  induces  convulsions 
and  paralysis,  and  at  length  arrests  respiration  ;  it  also  injuriously  affects 
the  heart  and  contracts  the  intestines.  Tobacco-poisoning  in  some  degree  is 
very  common,  and  is  probably  experienced  by  every  smoker  when  first  acquir- 
ing the  habit.  In  larger  doses  nicotine  will  kill  like  prussic  acid ;  in  small 
doses  it  causes  tetanus,  —  one  to  two  drops  being  enough  to  kill  a  dog  or  a 
rabbit  in  five  minutes  Horses  have  been  known  to  die  from  eating  oats  that 
had  been  kept  in  a  granary  along  with  tobacco.  Tobacco-juice  is  distilled  in 
smoking,  and  is  very  poisonous ;  some  that  was  put  in  a  student's  beer  caused 
his  death ;  even  contact  of  tobacco  with  the  skin  may  poison  the  system.  Thus 
a  squadron  of  hussars  who  smuggled  tobacco-leaf  next  the  skin,  were  all  made 
.sick. 

Statistics.  —  On  the  islands  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  there  are  about 
300,000  shops  in  which  tobacco  is  exposed  for  sale;  the  amount  of  sales 
exceeds  250,000,000  dollars  per  annum.  In  France  a  larger  amount  is  sold  in 
proportion  to  the  inha])itants. 

In  Denmark  the  annual  consumption  is  equal  to  7  pounds  to  the  person, 
including  women  and  children.  In  the  United  States  the  proportion  exceeds 
that  of  any  other  country  of  which  we  have  statistics. 

In  New  York  City,  Brooklyn,  and  Jersey  City,  it  is  estimated  that  about 
800,000  people  smoke ;  which  is  not  far  from  one  in  every  three,  counting 
men,  women,  anfl  children. 

The  entire  consumption  of  the  world  is  5,580,000,000  pounds ;  and  it  is  also 
estimated  that  about  300,000,000  of  the  whole  human  family  smoke,  and  that 
the  money  spent  for  tobacco  in  the  world  would  buy  bread  for  the  entire 
population  of  the  United  States. 


SOLANACE^. 


191 


Most  of  the  goveruiuents  <.f  Europe  have  either  ii.ouop.)lized  the  sale  or 
in/posed  a  high  Lcise  or  import  duty  up.,«n  it.  In  fact  the  iuHueuoe  it  exerts 
uDon  the  reveuue  of  uatious  forms  au  important  feature  in  its  history.  It  is  a 
special  object  of  legislation  in  several  governments  of  Europe;  in  some  it  is 
a  royal  monopoly,  in  others  it  is  admitted  from  abroad  under  high  import 
duties. 

When  we  consider  that  this  plant  produces  no  nutritive  substance  has  no 
beauty  of  Howers  nordelicacy  of  foliage,  has  no  pleasant  odors  has  a  disagree- 
aWe  taste  when  a  verv  little  is  eaten,  producing  vomiting  and  giddiness,  and 
tvl  en  taken  n  larger'duautities  causing  death,  we  are  surprised  that  it  should 
:it^^  t  e^^^^^^^^^^  do's  in  the  world, -that  it  should  have  become  an  important 
Licultural  product;  that  it  should  be  produced  in  such  quantities  as  to 
recur  atige  fraction  of  the  tonnage  of  the  world  to  freight  it;  that  its 
commercial  importance  should  compare  favorably  with  any  other -ge  arti- 
cle •    that  it  should  be  made  the  pet  of   empires  and    he  object  ot    spe ual 

egislation;  that  thousands  should  be  busied  in  its  production  and  manufac-- 
tuf;  that  vast  amounts  of  capital  should  be  employed  in  its  pu-hase  and 

ale  and  finally,  that  about  one  half  of  the  male  population  of  he  g^obe 
should  be  addicted  to  its  use,  from  which  no  good  results  can  possibly  How. 

ATROPA  L.  (Deadly  Nightshade.)  Calyx  leafy,  5-parted ;  corolla 
bell-shaped,  limb  5-clef t ;  stamens  distant,  shorter  than  the  corolla: 
anthers   opening   by  ^^    . 

slits ;     style    longer.  ^  /-^      _  ^^^ 

Berry  globular,  2- 
celled  upon  the  calyx, 
the  size  of  a  large 
cherry,  black  when 
ripe;  the  whole  plant 
downy.  Perennial 
herb.  Leaves  entire ; 
pedicels  solitary,  re- 
curved. 


1.  A.  Belladonna,  L. 

(Deadly  Nightshade.) 
Stem  trichotomous, 
branching,  purple,  2  to 
5  feet  high.  Eeavcs  in 
pairs,  unequal,  oval,  en- 
tire, pointed,  from  8  to 
12  inches  long ;  petioles 
very  short,  radical 
Flowers  large,  axillary, 
and  pendent,  brownish 
purple.  Flowers  in 
June. 


Atropa  Belladonna  (Deadly  Nightishade). 


2.  A.  Mandragora,  L. 
(Mandragora  officinarum.  L.)  is  a  plant  found 
similar  properties  to  belladouua. 


southern  Europe,  possessintj 


192  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  belladonna  is  not  wide: 
it  is  found  in  the  middle  parts  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  in  Europe,  western 
Asia,  and  eastern  North  America. 

Etymology.  —  Atropa  was  named  for  Atropos,  one  of  the  tliree  Fates,  daugh- 
ter of  Night,  whose  office  it  was  to  sever  the  thread  of  human  life,  —  repre- 
senting tliereby  the  deadly  character  of  this  poisonous  plant.  Belladonna,  the 
specilic  name,  is  from  two  Spanish  wonls,  bdla  and  donna,  and  signifies  "  fine 
lady ;  "  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  so  styled  because  the  fine  ladies  of  Italy 
used  it  as  a  beautifier.  The  reason  for  the  name  nightshade  is  not  apparent. 
Mandragora  is  derived  from  fxavSpa,  pertaining  to  oxen  or  cattle,  and  dypios, 
cruel,  and  relates  to  the  poisonous  effect  this  plant  has  upon  cattle  when  it  is 
accidentally  eaten  with  their  food. 

History.  —  This  plant  was  known  to  medical  practice  in  the  time  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  plant  whose  fruit  was  eaten  by  Anthony's 
famished  army  (while  retreating  before  the  Parthians),  by  which  so  many 
were  poisoned.  It  is  also  supposed  to  have  played  a  part  in  the  destruction 
of  Sweyn's  army  when  he  invaded  Scotland.  A  truce  was  agreed  upon,  and 
during  the  cessation  of  arms  the  Scots  were  to  furnish  food.  They  mixed 
the  juice  of  the  atropa  berries  with  the  bread  and  drink,  which  produced  an 
intoxicating  effect  upon  the  Danes ;  and  while  in  the  deep  sleep  which  suc- 
ceeded, the  Scots  fell  upon  and  slew  them. 

It  is  indigenous  to  Europe  and  western  Asia,  and  was  brought  to  North 
America  by  colonists,  and  in  a  few  places,  according  to  Dr.  Gray,  has  escaped 
from  cultivation. 

Chemistry. — Atropa  belladonna  yields  to  the  chemist  two  substances, 
atropine  and  belladonine. 

These  are  the  active  principles  of  the  plant,  and  are  found  in  all  its  parts,  — 
leaves,  fruit,  and  bark. 

Use.  —  Belladonna  is  administered  in  extract  tincture,  and  in  the  form  of 
plasters  and  ointment'  All  parts  of  the  plant  yield  an  active  narcotic  poison. 
It  relieves  inflammation,  soothes  irritation,  and  allays  nervous  excitement. 
It  is  used  by  oculists  to  cause  insensibility  or  temporary  paralysis  of  the  retina. 
It  is  much  used  in  homoeopathic  practice,  especially  in  scarlet  fever,  and  con- 
sidered by  this  school  a  specific.  When  taken  in  large  quantities  it  causes 
intoxication,  accompanied  by  fits  of  laughter,  ending  in  convulsions  and 
death 

CAPSICUM,  L.  -  Calyx,  short,  broad,  bell-shaped,  dentate,  with  5 
bristle-like  teeth;  corolla  wheel-shaped,  deeply  5-cleft,  divisions  or 
lobes  valvate ;  stamens  slender,  rising  from  the  base  of  the  corolla ; 
anthers  short,  opening  lengthwise  ;  disk  inconspicuous :  style  thread- 
like ;  stigma  club-shaped ;  ovary  usually  3-celled ;  ovules  numerous. 
Fruit  a  berry,  with  a  thick  or  thin  inflated  pericarp,  leathery  or  succu- 
lent, erect  or  nodding,  globose,  conical,  linear,  or  oblong.  Seeds  flat, 
rough  or  smooth.     Annual  herb.     Pedicels  solitary  or  in  pairs. 

1.  C.  annuum,  L.  (Bed  Pepper.)  Stem  smooth,  crooked  branching,  2  to  3 
feet  high.  Leaves  egg-shaped,  smooth,  entire,  on  long  foot-stalks.  Flowers 
axillary,  solitary,  white;  calyx  tubular,  with  5  small  divisions;  corolla  wheel- 
shaped,  in  .5  divisions,  plaited,  and  pointed  ;  filaments  short  and  tapering  ; 
anthers  oblong  ;  ovary  egg-shaped  ;  style  slender,  longer  than  the  filaments  j 


Capsicum  annuum  (Red  Pepper). 
Fruit  used 


SOLANACE^.  193 

stigma  bluut.  Fruit  drooping,  euuical,  1  to  2  iuches  long,  pod  with  a  thiu 
siitill,  reddisli-yellow  when  ripe,  2-celled,  many-seeded  ;  seeds  yeliowish-white, 
flat,  iciduey-shaped. 

2.  C.  fastigiatam,  L.  (Cayenne  I'epjier. 
Bird  repi)er.)  Lilce  tlie  last,  except  tliat 
the  tiowers  are  in  clusters  of  2  to  3,  and 
that  the  fruit  is  very  small  and  in  the  shape 
of  a  cock's  spur,  and  the  pungency  very 
much  sharper. 

3.  C.  frutescens.  (Cayenne  Pepper.) 
Much  cultivated ;  is  like  the  last,  except 
that  the  pods  are  larger,  and  more  pungent. 

These  three  bear  the  most  ])ungent  fruit, 
and  furnish  the  red  pepper  of  commerce. 

4.  C.  grossum,  W.  (Bell  Pepper.  Bull 
Pepper.)  This  is  unlike  any  of  the  above, 
inasmucli  as  the  fruit  is  not  only  very  large, 
but  the  walls  of  the  pod  are  thick  and 
succulent,  anil  very  mild  as  to  pungency. 
Pod  from  2  to  6  iuches  long,  and  from  1  to  4  inches  in  diameter, 
for  pickling. 

(jeography.  —  The  home  of  the  capsicum  is  America.  It  is  believed  that  it 
was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  Europeans  as  a  condiment  for  food  by  the 
physician  of  the  fieet  on  the  second  voyage  of  Columbus  to  the  New  World. 
It  is  now  cultivated  in  almost  every  civilized  country  in  the  world  where  the 
climate  admits  of  its  cultivation.  The  southern  Asiatics  have  names  of  their 
own  for  it ;  this  goes  U)  show  tliat  it  is  also  indigenous  there,  but  it  has  never 
been  found  in  the  Old  World  outside  of  cultivation ;  on  ilie  other  hand,  it  has 
been  found  wild  in  Soutli  America.  Capsicum  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical 
plant,  though  it  fruits  in  southern  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  as  far 
north  as  the  43d  ])avallel.  It  is  grown  in  all  tropical  countries  as  a  condiment 
or  food.  The  West  India  islands,  middle 
Africa,  and  southern  Asia  are  all  grateful 
regions  of  this  fiery  fruit.  The  outer  skin  of 
the  fruit,  as  well  as  tlie  seed,  yields  a  red  oil. 

Fjjjmoloq}!. —  Capsicum  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  kotttos,  strong, 
iillnding  to  the  pungent  taste  of  the  fruit  poils. 
It  lias  also  been  derived  from  na^a,  a  coffer, 
box,  or  chest,  referring  to  the  pod  which 
holds  the  seeds  Annuum  is  Latin,  and  means 
"  yearly  ;"/r»/e,scp».s,  having  the  apjjearance  of 
a  ^\\Y\\\^\  fastigiatum,  tapering,  or  ))yramidal  , 
i/rossum,  from  the  Latin  (/rossus,  thick,  referring 
to  the  thick  i)od  of  this  species.  Pepper  comes 
from  the  (ireek  triirfpt,  and  Cni/enne  refers  to  the 
country  whence  the  l)est  is  brouglit. 

Use.  —  As   a   medicine,    capsicum    is    highly 
stimulant  ;  a  tea  of  rod  ])ep])er  is  a  s])ecific  in  nausea,  largely  used  in  com- 
pounding the  medicines  of  the  Thompsonian  practitioners      The  ground  fruit, 
Pk.  Fl.— 14 


Capsicum  grossum  (Bell  Peppert. 


194 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


or  "  pepper,"  is  largely  used  as  a  condiment  for  food,  especially  in  hot 
countries,  and  is  much  used  in  liniments.  When  mixed  with  the  food  of 
poultry  it  is  said  to  preserve  health  and  promote  the  laying  of  eggs. 

SOIANUM,  L.  Calyx  persistent,  5-parted ;  corolla  rotate,  subcam- 
panulate ;  tube  very  short ;  limb  plaited  in  the  bud,  5-cleft,  lobed  or 
angular ;  anthers  erect,  connivent,  but  not  united,  opening  at  the  top 
by  2  pores.  Fruit  a  globular  berry,  2-celled,  many-seeded;  seeds 
small.     Flowering  in  August.     Unarmed  or  prickly  herb. 

1.  S.  tuberosum,  L.  (Potato.  Irish  Potato.  White  Potato.  Common  Potato.) 
Stem  herbaceous,  erect,  prostrate,  or  assurgent,  2  to  4  feet  long,  angular  and 
branched  towards  the  top,  smooth  or  clothed  with  soft  hairs  at  and  near  to  the 

extremities.  Leaves  interruptedly  pinnate ;  leaflets 
roundish,  petioled,  dark  green,  every  alternate 
pair  of  leaflets  very  smaD ;  peduncles  few-flowered  ; 
flowers  blue  or  white.  Rootlets  give  rise  to  tubers, 
globular  or  lengthened.  Fruit  a  green  berry,  about 
the  size  of  an  ordinary  marble;  seeds  numerous. 
Flowers  in  July  and  August.  Roots  giving  rise  to 
globular  or  reniform  tubers.  Tubers  ripen  July 
to  October. 

When  propagated  from  the  seed,  the  tubers  of 
the  first  year  are  about  the  size  of  peas ;  the  tubers 
produced  by  these  are  much  larger,  and  the  pro- 
duct of  the  third  year  is  fit  for  the  table.  When 
propagated  from  the  seed,  the  plant  sports  freely, 
and  new  varieties  are  thus  produced.  When  the 
tubers  are  used  to  propagate  from,  the  variety  is 
constant. 

There  are  other  allied  species,  but  they  have  not 
stood  the  test  of  cultivation,  on  account  especially 
of  the  small  size  of  their  tubers,  as  follows :  — 

2.  S.  Commersonii,  Dunal.     Chile. 

3.  S.  immite,  Duual.     Peru. 

4.  S.  verrucosum,  Schlechtendal.     Mexico. 

These  all  differ  in  botanical  features  as  well  as  in  size  and  quality  of  their 
tubers,  so  much  so  as  to  entitle  them  to  a  specific  character. 

No  plant  in  the  whole  range  of  table  vegetables  has  had  so  large  a  share  of 
attention  from  gardeners  and  amateurs  as  the  potato,  and  every  year  new 
varieties  are  offered  for  sale  by  the  seedsmen. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  potato  is  between  the  35th  and 
50tli  parallels,  and  it  even  produces  well  up  to  60°.  It  will  grow  and  fruit  well 
in  any  latitude  where  the  cereals  flourish. 

It  yields  best  in  cool,  damp  climates ;  and  the  edible  qualities  are  best  where 
the  plant  is  grown  in  rich  sandy  loam. 

Etymology.  —  Solatium  is  of  very  doubtful  derivation.  The  most  plausible 
history  of  the  word  is  that  it  is  from  the  Latin  word  snlor,  solace,  or  comfort, 
due  to  the  narcotic  effect  of  some  of  the  plants  of  this  very  large  genus. 
•  Tuberosum  is  due  to  the  tuberous  character  of  its  products.  Potato  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  batata,  already  explained.  The  French,  from  the  same  source, 
have  made  it  patate. 


SOLANUM    TUBEROSUM 

(Potato). 


History.—  Hmnlx.Mt  l.olieves  the  i)lant  known  to  tlie  Spaniards  under  the 
name  ynaglia  is  the  original  of  the  potato.  Tlie  jjotato  is  indigenous  to  Chile, 
and  hat;  been  taken  thence  to  neighboring  parts  of  South  America.  Darwin, 
in  his  vovage  to  the  south  seas  in  1840,  touched  at  Chile,  where  he  found 
the  potato  wild  among  the  islands  on  the  coast,  growing  in  great  luxuriance, 
with  every  appearance  of  being  native  to  the  soil,  but  saw  nothing  to  lead 
him  to  believe  tliat  the  natives  cultivated  it.  In  Peru,  travellers  report  that 
the  natives  pay  much  attention  to  its  growth.  It  is  believed  that  the 
Spaniards  carried  it  from  Peru  to  Europe.  This  is  the  view  taken  by  De 
Candolle.  Another  theory  is  that  it  was  taken  to  Florida  by  the  Spaniards, 
whence  it  found  its  way  into  the  English  settlements  of  Virginia,  and  thence 
to  England.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  Kaleigli,  in  warring  against 
the  Spaniards  as  a  privateer,  might  have  captured  vessels  with  potatoes  <jn 
board,  and  in  that  way  have  introduced  the  plant  into  Ireland.  It  is  related 
that  he  had  it  planted  on  his  estate  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  and  that  his 
gardener  one  day  brought  him  a  potato  ball,  or  berry  ;  tasting  it,  he  was  so 
disgusted  with  it  that  he  ordered  the  gardener  to  root  it  out  and  destroy  it. 
In  attempting  to  do  this,  the  gardener  discovered  the  tubers  attached  to  its 
roots;  thev  were  cooked,  the  value  of  this  wonderful  plant  was  revealed,  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  potato  dates  from  that  incident  This  occurrence  is  said 
to  have  taken  place  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was,  however, 
known  in  other  parts  of  Europe  before  taken  to  Ireland  by  Raleigh.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  confined  to  Ireland  as  a  food-plant,  but  has  now  found  its  way 
throughout  Europe. 

Chemistri/.  —The  potato  yields  to  the  chemist  in  100  parts  by  weight: 
water,  68  ;  starch,  17:  wood,  09  ;  mucilage,  06  ;  =  100. 

Compared  with  wheat,  it  is  as  2-7  ;  i.  e.,  a  pound  of  wheat  is  worth  3^  pounds 
of  potatoes  ;  or  one  bushel  of  wheat  is  worth  3^  bushels  of  potatoes. 

Use.  —  During  the  300  years  which  have  elapsed  since  its  discovery,  the 
potato  has  steadily  advanced  in  value,  until  it  has  reached  a  point  of  impor- 
tance in  the  economy  of  human  life  unequalled  by  any  otlior  food-jjlant  outside 
of  the  cereals.  As  a  root-vegetable  for  the  table,  nothing  ecpials  it.  In  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  the  United  States  of  Nortli  America,  and  in  Canada, 
it  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  working  classes,  and  is  always 
upon  the  tables  of  the  rich.  The  natives  of  Peru  cook  it  by  roasting  it  in  the 
ashes.  The  most  common  mode  of  cooking  is  boiling  ;  it  is  also  fried,  l)aked, 
and  .stewed  with  meat  or  milk.  It  is  said  that  the  Poles  excel  in  cookii>g  the 
potato,  and  that  they  practice  thirty  different  methods  of  preparing  it  for 
the  table. 

Ordeu  XL     PEDALINE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  irregular,  axillary,  solitary,  racemed  or  in  spikes, 
mostly  2-bracteolate  ;  calyx  5-parted;  corolla-tnbe  cylindrical,  throat 
swollen,  .5-lobed  ;  limb  bilabiate.  im])ricate  or  subvalvate;  stamens 
o  on  corolla-tube,  1  sterile,  4  fertile,  2  long  and  2  short ;  ovary  su]ie- 
rior,  1-celled,  rarely  2-4-celled.  Fruit  a  capsule  or  drupe,  4-seeded. 
Leaves  opposite  or  alternate,  simple.     Herbs. 

No.  of  genera,  about  10;  species,  40;  found  in  warm  climates. 

SESAMUM.  L.  (Oil  Seed.)  Calyx  small,  fvparted ;  corolla  bell- 
shaped,  long  and  curved,  oblique  at  ba.se,  .'Vlobed,  lateral  lobes  open, 


196 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


anterior  shorter ;  stamens  4,  attached  to  the  base  of  the  corolhi,  in- 
cluded; anthers  arrow-shaped,  attached  at  their  backs,  cells  nearly 
parallel;  ovary  2-celled,  each  cell  divided  into  2  dry  false  partitions; 
ovules  many  in  each  cell,  arranged  in  a  line  ;  capsule  oblong  oi-  ovate ; 
seeds  numerous,  small,  triangular  in  outline,  differing  in  color ;  em- 
bryo straight,  radical,  short,  testa  crustaceous.  Leaves  opposite  below, 
and  alternate  above,  petioled,  entire,  incised  or  dentate,  3-parted  or 
dissected.  Flowers  pale,  violet,  solitary,  axillary,  nearly  sessile.  Whole 
plant  scabrous,  erect,  or  prostrate. 

1 .  S.  Indicum,  DC  (Sesame.)  Stalk  2  to  3  feet  iu  height,  scabrous.  Leaves 
ovate,  oblong,  or  lanceolate,  aud  alternate  above,  the  lower  ones  S-lobed  or 

3-parted  aud  opposite,  couspicuously 
feather-veined  with  yellow  glauds 
at  the  base  of  the  peduncles. 
Flowers  resembling  the  flowers  of 
the  foxglove  in  shape,  color  dingy 
white  to  rose;  capsule  velvety  and 
pubescent,  mucronate,  2-celled,  de- 
veloping in  4  cells  ;  seeds  numerous, 
ovoid,  flat,  varying  in  color,  white, 
brown,  or  black,  rather  smaller  than 
flaxseed.  This  species  varies  greatly 
in  the  form  of  its  leaves  aud  color 
of  its  seeds. 

2.  S.  orientals,  L.  Larger  leaves 
than  iu  S.  ludicum  ;  flowers  white, 
otherwise  as  in  No.  1. 

Leaves  of  both  species  abound 
in  a  gummy  substance  wliich  they 
yield  to  water,  forming  a  pleasant 
demulgent  beverage. 

Geography.  —  The  home  of  the 
plant  is  believed  to  be  the  Sunda  Isles,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  India, 
and  thence  to  western  Asia,  southern  Europe,  and  northern  Africa,  and  from 
there*  to  the  New  World.  To  obtain  the  oil,  the  ripe  seeds  are  first  washed 
to  remove  all  mucilage,  and  the  oil  is  obtained  by  expression  ;  the  seeds  yield 
45  per  cent  of  oil,  as  to  weight.  Its  geographical  zone  is  a  tropical  and  sub 
tropical  belt  extending  both  sides  of  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  35°  all 
around  the  globe.     It  grows  sparingly  in  higher  latitudes. 

Etymologij.  —  Sesamum  is  derived  from  a-rjadiwn,  the  Greek  name  of  this 
plant ;  the  specific  name,  Indicum,  denotes  the  country  where  it  is  cultivated. 
The  seeds  are  known  in  commerce  as  Til,  Gingeli,  and  Tingili,  Sesame,  and 
Benne  seeds.     Onentale  is  from  the  Latin  orientalis,  and  signifies  "  eastern." 

History.  —  The  S.  orientale  was  known  in  the  Levant  and  southern  Europe 
and  Egypt  at  least  four  centuries  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era, 
being  mentioned  by  Xenophon.  It  was  taken  to  the  West  Indies  by  Euro- 
peans, and  S.  Indicum  has  found  its  way  to  Florida  and  other  Southern  States, 
and  has  crept  along  as  far  north  as  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia.  It  was 
detected  by  Judge  Addison  Brown  in  the  ballast  heaps  at  Communipaw,  N.  J. 
It  is  known  as  the  thunderbolt  flower.     It  is  also  the  potent  legendary  opener 


Sesamum  Indicum  (Sesame). 


VERBENACEJE.  197 

of  doors  and  caves.  In  the  celebrated  story  of  Ali  Raba,  the  conjuror  pro- 
nounces the  words,  "  Open  Sesame,"  and  tlie  door  Hies  open. 

Use.  —  The  plant  is  used  in  Europe  and  India  for  a  pot-herb,  but  it  is  most 
valuable  for  tlie  oil  it  ])roduces. 

The  oil  resists  putrefaction  lon<2^er  tlian  any  other  fixed  oil,  and  is  considered 
the  most  delicate  (»f  all  tlie  sweet  oils,  except  olive  oil.  It  is  used  in  India  for 
food  and  for  anointing  the  body,  and  for  the  fragrant  oils  used  in  religious 
ceremonies.  It  is  used  in  all  civilized  countries  for  the  same  purposes  for 
which  olive  oil  is  used.  It  is  applied  to  illuminating  purposes,  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  cosmetics  antl  hair  dressings,  and  especially  to  the  manufacture  <jf  fine 
toilet  soaps. 

It  congeals  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  other  oils,  and  is  hence  well 
adapted  to  cold  climates.  It  has  of  late  years  been  largely  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  spurious  butter,  or  oleomargarine.  The  natives  of  India  make 
an  article  of  diet  of  the  seeds,  and  also  of  the  refuse  cakes  after  the  oil  is 
pressed  out  of  the  seeds,  and  they  ])lace  the  seeds  in  the  graves  with  their 
dead  relatives. 

Okder  XLI.     VERBENACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  irregular,  or  nearly  regular,  in  a  head,  spike,  raceme, 
or  cyme,  rarely  solitary,  usually  bracteate ;  calyx  with  united  sepals, 
persistent,  tubular,  limb  toothed ; 
corolla  h}qiogynous ;  petals  united 
and  tubular,  limb  ■4-5-lobed,  fre- 
quently unequal,  and  lip-shaped, 
imbricate  in  the  bud;  stamens,  2 
long  and  2  shorter,  rarely  5,  attached 
to  the  corolla ;  ovary  free ;  style 
terminal,  forked  at  top.  Fruit,  a 
fleshy  drupe,  with  2-4  nutlets. 
Leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  rarely 
alternate,  exstipulate,  simple,  or 
rarely  compound.  Herbaceous  and 
woody.     Plants  and  trees. 

Xo.  of  genera,  59 ;  species,  TOO ; 
warm  climates.  Tectona  orandis  (Teak). 

TECTONA,  L.f.  Calyx  bell-shaped,  short,  r)-6-cleft,  sharp,  tube 
swollen  below,  and  contracted  near  the  mouth ;  corolla-tube  short, 
limb  gaping,  5-0-cleft,  lobes  short,  nearly  equal,  imbricated ;  .  sta- 
mens 5  to  6,  attached  to  the  corolla  near  its  base,  longer  than  corolla- 
tube  ;  anthers  ovate  or  oblong  ;  ovarium  fleshy,  4-celled,  cells  1-ovuled ; 
style  elongated,  2-cleft,  ovules  attached  to  the  side:  drupe  inclosed  in 
the  calyx ;  exocarp  thin,  endocarp  fleshy.     S(»pds  erect,  oblong. 

T.  grandis.  L.f.  (Teak.)  Trunk  erect,  80  to  1 .50  feet  in  height,  and  from 
3  to  6  foot  in  diameter.  Bark  smooth,  gray  ;  braiulilets  4-sided.  Leaves 
opposite,  or  in  verticils  of  .3,  rough  on  the  upper  surface,  downy  beneath, 
entire,  from  1  to  2  feet  in  length,  and  G  to  18   inchos  wido.     Flowers  small, 


198  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

sessile,  white,  in  terminal,  compound,  dichotomous  panicles,  bracts  small. 
Fruit  lens-shaped,  in  4-celled  drupes. 

There  are  three  species  of  this  magnificent  tree. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  home  of  the  Tectona  is  tropical.  One 
species  is  found  in  the  East  Indies,  another  in  Burmah,  and  the  third  in  the 
Philippines. 

Etijinologi].  —  The  generic  name,  Tectona,  was  altered  from  Tekka,  the 
native  name,  whose  signification  is  unknown.  Grandis,  the  specific  name,  is 
the  Latin  for  large,  or  noble,  and  is  due  to  its  magnificent  size. 

Use.  —  The  teak  is  used  in  India  in  all  structures  where  strength  and  dura- 
bility are  desired.  It  has  been  called  the  oak  of  the  East.  England  has 
constructed  some  of  her  best  ships  of  teak,  some  of  which  were  built  in  India, 
and  others  in  England,  the  timber  having  been  taken  home. 

The  leaf  yields  a  red  dye,  and  is  also  charged  with  an  oil,  the  extraction  of 
which  forms  an  important  industry.  The  oil  is  used  for  polishing  and  var- 
nishing purposes. 

Order  XLII.    LABIAT-^]. 

Flowers  irregular,  rarely  regular,  solitary  or  in  pairs,  or  clustered 
in  cymes  in  the  axils  of  leaves  or  bracts,  scattered  along  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  stems,  or  in  densely  crowded  spikes ;  calyx  persistent ; 
sepals  5,  connate,  mostly  lipped ;  corolla  with  united  petals,  h}^)ogy- 
nous,  tube  occasionally  twisted,  limb  4-5-lobed.  imbricated  in  the 
bud,  usually  2-lipped,  upper  lip  entire  or  notched,  lower  3-lobed, 
sometimes  1-lipped  and  deeply  cleft,  sometimes  bell-shaped  or  funnel- 
shaped,  with  four  equal  lobes  and  nearly  equal  stamens ;  stamens  on 
corolla-tube  usually  4,  didynamous ;  ovary  free ;  style  simple,  rising 
from  the  base  of  the  ovarian  lobes,  Jr-lobed ;  stigma  usually  forked. 
Fruit  4  akene-like  lobes  or  nutlets,  free  or  in  pairs.  Stems  square ; 
leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  exstipulate ;  subwoody  and  herbaceous 
plants,  covered  with  glands  containing  an  odoriferous  volatile  oil. 

Xo.  of  genera,  136 ;  species,  2,600  ;  cosmopolitan. 

LAVANDULA,  L.  Calyx  spindle-shaped,  13-15  striate,  5-toothed, 
upper  tooth  longest ;  corolla-tube  exserted,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower 
one  3-lobed;  stamens  shorter  than  the  corolla-tube;  anthers  1-celled 
by  confluence.     Flowers  small,  spicate.     Perennial  herb. 

1.  L.  spica,  L.  (Lavender.)  Stem  woody  at  the  base,  15  to  20  inches  high 
in  a  natural  state,  but  reaching  5  feet  under  cultivation,  branching  near  the 
ground.  Leaves  crowded  about  the  base  of  the  branches,  whitish  downy, 
oblanceolate,  tapering  to  the  base,  sessile,  edges  revolute,  leaves  on  the 
branches  and  upper  part  of  the  stem  linear-lanceolate,  uppermost  ones  shorter 
than  the  calyx  bracts,  and  awl-shaped.  Flowers  in  an  interrupted  spike,  lilac- 
colored.     July. 

Var.  alba,  W.     Has  white  flowers,  otherwise  as  above. 
Var.  latifolia,  W.     Has  broader  leaves 

2.  L.  vera,  DC,  and  L.  stoechas,  L.  Were  formerly  in  use,  but  are  not  used 
at  the  present  day. 

There  are  some  twenty  species  in  all ;  the  above  are  the  important  ones. 


LAHIATTE. 


199 


fifofjrnphi/.  —  'Vho  T.av;ui(lula  is  a  native  <»f  (ireere  and  the  (irecian  islands, 
wlieuce  it  spread  west,  and  was  carried  hy  Eunjpeaus  to  Hiudustau  ;  it  was 
brought  in  the  same  way  to  the  Atlantic  States  of  North  America,  where  it 
has  become  a  common  garden  plant,  cultivated  for  its  delicate  fragrance.  It 
grows  throughout  the  middle  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  has  spread  over  the 
countries  of  the  Levant,  has  been  seen  in  gardens  in  Hindustan,  and  is  com- 
mon in  the  gardens  of  the  eastern  United  States  of  North  America.  It  is 
occasionally  found  growing  wild  near  deserted  dwellings. 

Etymologi/.  —  Lavandula  is  from  the  Latin  word  lavare,  wash,  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  spikes  were  used  to  perfume  freshly-washed  linen. 
The  Romans  perfumed 
their  baths  with  it. 
The  name  spica,  Latin, 
a  spike,  is  due  to  the 
mode  of  inflorescence. 

Preparation.  —  The 
flowers  are  distilled, 
the  product  being  a 
delicate  essential  oil, 
and  a  coarser  oil  is  ol)- 
tained  from  the  leaves 
and  ends  of  the 
branches.  The  oil  is 
largely  manufactured 
in  the  department  of 
the  "Alpes  Maritimes," 
in  the  southeast  of 
France.  The  best, 
however,  is  produced 
in  England,  and  brings 
in  open  market  fifteen 
times  more  than  the 
best  French  oil. 

Use.  —  Lavender  is 
stimulant  and  tonic. 
The  pulverized  dried 
leaves  are  used  for  a  snuff  to  cause  sneezing. 

The  leaves  are  laid  among  linen  to  perfume  it. 

The  oil  of  lavender  is  a  favorite  perfume  for  manufacturing  fragrant  waters, 
and  for  compounding  an  aromatic  spirit  to  remedy  nausea,  also  to  disguise 
the  disagreeable  taste  of  other  drugs.  The  coarser  oil  produced  from  the 
leaves  and  stems  is  called  spike  oil,  and  is  used  by  artists  to  mi.x  their  colors, 
and  especially  for  painting  on  pottery. 


Lavandula  spica  (Lavender). 


MENTHA,  L.  Calyx  5-toothed ;  corolla  4-cleft,  just  a  little  longer 
than  the  calyx,  nearly  equal,  one  division  broader  and  eniarginate ; 
stamens  4,  straight,  separate.  Flowers  in  verticils,  small,  crowded, 
short-stalked,  or  subse.ssile. 


1.  M.  viridis,  L.  (Spearmint.)  Stem  4-aiiglod,  from  a  creeping  root,  12 
to  20  inches  high.  Leaves  wrinkled,  subsessilc  or  short-petioled,  lanceolate 
acute,  and  cut   serrate ;    bracts  narrow,  lanceolate  or  bristly  ;    teetli  <>f  the 


200 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


calyx  hairy,  spikes  slender,  interrupted.      Whole   plant   possesses  a  strong 
agreeable  odor.     Damp  places. 

2.  M.  piperita,  L.  (Peppermint.)  Stem  quadrangular  and  grooved,  some- 
times hairy,  from  1  to  2  feet  high,  slender,  weak,  purplish,  and  branching. 
Leaves  on  short  petioles,  ovate,  pointed,  and  serrate,  dark  green  above,  smooth 
and  shining,  paler  underneath,  with  purplish  veins.  Flowers  in  terminal 
spikes,  lower  parts  interrupted,  tlie  lower  whorl  remote;  bracts  lanceolate  and 
ciliate ;  calyx  furrowed,  with  5  dark  purple  ciliated  striae  ;  corolla  purple ; 
filaments  short,  anthers  included  ;  stigma  forked. 

Var.  subhirsuta,  Benth.  Has  scattered  hairs  on  the  petioles  and  veins  of 
the  leaves. 

There  are  many  species  to  this  genus,  but  those  we  have  described  are  the 
most  important,  and  the  only  ones  that  possess  any  economic  or  commercial 
value. 

Geography. — The  geographical  distribution  of  the  mint  is  a  belt  between 
35°  and  50°  of  north  latitude,  extending  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Missis- 
sippi valley  to  Japan.  Loudon  claims  England 
as  the  home  of  the  spearmint,  as  well  as  the 
peppermint.  The  M.  Piperita  is  found  wild  in 
Hindustan,  Japan,  Persia,  northwestern  India, 
and  in  Egypt.  In  the  days  of  Liuugeus  it  was 
a  well-known  plant  in  gardens  throughout  cen- 
tral Europe. 

Both  these  species  were  brought  to  the  British 
colonies  in  North  America  by  European  emi- 
grants, and  have  become  naturalized  throughout 
the  northern  and  middle  Atlantic  States. 

Ettjmology.  —  Mentha,  the   generic   name,  is 
said  to  have  been  given  to  this  plant  in  honor 
of  Mintha,  the  daughter  of  Coc\i;us,  who  ac- 
cording to  the  myth  was  turned  into  mint  by 
Proserpine  in  a  fit  of  jealousy.     Viridis  is  the 
Latin  word  for  green,  due  to  the  color  of  the 
plant.     Piperita,  from  the  Greek  irUepi,  pepper, 
was  given  to  this  species  on  account  of  the  bit- 
ing pungency  of  the  taste  of  the  leaves.     Spear- 
mint is  due  to  the  spear-shaped  spikes  in  which  the  flowers  appear.     Pepper- 
mint is  merely  a  translation  of  Piperita.     Mint  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption 
of  the  word  mentha,  or  mintha. 

History.  —  Mentha  viridis,  or  spearmint,  was  under  cultivation  in  the  con- 
vent gardens  in  the  ninth  century.  The  exact  locality  which  may  be  claimed 
as  its  home  is  not  known,  but  it  is  a  European  plant. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  mentha  piperita  is  a  native  of  England,  was  discov- 
ered in  Hertfordshire  by  a  physician  in  1696,  and  was  described  by  Ray. 

Cultivation.  —  It  is  cultivated  for  the  production  of  oil  of  peppermint,  which 
is  obtained  by  distilling  the  green  plant. 

The  cultivation  for  this  purpose  is  carried  on  in  England,  on  the  European 
continent,  and  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  Ohio  in  North  America.  The 
ground,  which  should  be  damp,  is  prepared  in  furrows,  and  roots  are  laid  in 
them,  after  which  they  are  lightly  covered  with  earth  and  allowed  to  grow  till 


Mentha  piperita  (Peppermint). 


LABIATE..  201 

the  f^round  is  covered.  When  in  flower  it  is  cut.  aii<l  after  lying  for  a  part  of  a 
dav,  is  j)laced  into  the  stills.  After  the  oil  is  (extracted,  t  lie  mint  is  cured  and 
fed  to  cattle. 

Use.  — Spearmint  is  used  to  flavor  sauces  for  meats,  and  to  jirepare  a  very 
popular  beverage  known  as  mint  Julep ;  also  in  the  manufacture  of  essences 
and  cordials;  its  medical  (jualities  are  carminative  and  anthelmintic. 

Teppermiut  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  essential  oil  of  jx-j)- 
permint,  on  which  the  medicinal  character  of  the  plant  depends.  Its  medicinal 
qualities  are  anti-spasmodic,  and  it  is  used  in  domestic  practice  for  pains 
in  tlie  stomach  and  lower  intestines.  In  China  and  Hindustan  it  is  largely 
used  to  relieve  the  flatulency  incident  to  a  vegetable  diet.  The  taste  is  aro- 
matic, warm,  i)ungent,  somewhat  like  camphor,  and  iiighly  stimulant,  'i'he 
greater  part  of  the  oil,  however,  is  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  confectionery 
and  cordials. 

3.  M.  pulegium,  L.  (Pennyroyal.)  Stem  6  to  10  inches  long,  bluntly 
4-angled.  much  branched,  usually  trailing,  slightly  hairy.  Leaves  on  short 
petioles,  small,  bluntly  serrate,  hairy  underneath.  Flower-stalks  covered  with 
short,  thick  hairs;  flowers  numerous,  in  sessile  whorls ;  calyx  greenish-imrple, 
furrowed  and  hairy,  witli  5  unequal,  ciliated,  pointed  teeth  ;  corolla  twice  the 
length  of  the  calyx,  purple,  4-cleft,  white  at  the  ba.se,  clothed  with  long,  soft 
hairs ;  stamens  erect,  longer  than  the  corolla.  Annual.  Flowering  from 
June  to  September. 

Geography.  —  Found  growing  throughout  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and 
northern  Africa ;  was  brouglit  to  northeastern  America  and  introduced  into 
cultivation  ;  but  the  character  and  properties  are  so  nearly  allied  to  those  of 
the  American  plant  {Hedeomn  pn/ef/ioides,  Pers.)  that  it  has  disappeared,  and 
the  American  plant  is  used  in  its  place. 

Ktymohfiji  and  Hiatorip  —  Piuerjinm  is  from  the  two  Latin  words,  pule.r.  a 
flea,  and  rerjo,  have  power  over,  due  to  its  reputation  for  destroying  this  lively 
insect.  Pevni/mi/al  is  a  curious  corruption  of  the  specific  name.  Tn  England 
it  is  called  puddlnc]  fjrass,  because  of  its  use  for  flavoring  blood  puddings  ;  also 
flea  mint,  for  the  reason  already  stated. 

The  pennyroyal  was  known  in  the  first  century,  and  is  mentioned  l\v  l)oth 
Dioscorides  and  Pliny. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  of  pennyroyal  are  carminative,  anti- 
spasmodic, tonic,  and  stimulant.  It  is  a  well-known  remedy  in  throat 
di.seases.  It  is  used  as  a  gargle  and  as  a  liniment ;  also  as  an  insecticide, 
or  insectifuge,  as  the  odor  is  said  to  banish  various  insects.  The  medical 
qualities  reside  in  an  essential  oil  obtained  by  distilling  the  entire  plant. 

I'ennyroyal  is  admini.stered  by  quacks  for  a  blood-purifier,  under  the  name 
of  Orf/ana. 

ORIGANUM.  L.  Calyx  ovate,  bell-shaped,  obscurely  P^nerved, 
5-tooth(Ml,  tliroat  liairy ;  corolla  2-lippod,  upper  lip  erect  and  notched, 
lower  loncjer,  and  composed  of  8  .spreading  lobes ;  stamens  4,  ascend- 
ing and  spreading,  mostly  longer  than  the  tube  of  corolla.  Perennials ; 
leaves  nearly  entire :  flowers  in  crowded  short  or  cylindrical  heads; 
bracts  usually  colored  ;  flowers  pur]>lish. 

Species,  25  in  number ;  mostly  European. 


202 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


1.  0.  vulgare,  L.  (Common  Marjoram.)  Stem  purple,  leafy,  branched  near 
the  top,  1  to  2  feet  high,  and  hairy.  Leaves  stalked,  entire,  or  slightly  ser- 
rate, sprinkled  with  resinous  dots,  paler  underneath,  ovate,  lanceolate,  an 
inch  in  length,  petioles  shorter  than  the  blades,  bracts  purplish.  Flowers  in  a 
terminal  3-forked  panicle,  in  globular,  compact  heads ;  calyx  hairy  inside, 
with  short,  nearly  equal,  teeth  ;  corolla  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx,  with  4  broad, 
nearly  equal,  lobes,  the  upper  one  broadest  and  erect ;  stamens  longer  than 
corolla-tube.  Flowers  purplish-white.  AVhole  plant  highly  aromatic  to  the 
taste.     July  to  August. 

2.  0.  marjorana,  L.  (Marjoram.  Sweet  Marjoram.)  Stems  numerous, 
woody,  12-18  inches  high,  much-branched.    Leaves  oval,  obtuse,  entire,  on  short 

petioles,  blade  hoary- 
pubescent,  pale-green. 
Flowers  small,  white  or 
pinkish,  in  crowded, 
roundish,  compact,  ter- 
minal spikes,  bracts 
numerous  and  large ; 
calyx  tubular,  .5- 
toothed,  teeth  sharp ; 
corolla  funnel-shaped, 
2-lipped,  upper  one 
erect  and  rounded, 
lower  one  cut  into  3- 
pointed  segments. 
Leases  and  flowers  pos- 
sess a  pleasant  aro- 
matic odor.  July  to 
August. 

These  two  species  are 
the  only  ones  whose 
medicinal  or  commer- 
cial value  is  of  any  im- 
portance. 

Geography.  —  The 
geographical  range  of  these  two  species  is  wide  ;  they  grow  well  all  through 
the  Levant  and  Mediterranean  countries,  and  all  over  Europe  as  far  north  as 
the  50th  parallel. 

Etijmologji.  —  Orifjanum,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek  words  upos, 
"  an  elevation  "  or  "  hill,"  and  yavos,  "  beauty,"  hence  the  beauty  of  the  hills. 
VuJqare  is  Latin  for  "  common."  Marjorana  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  low 
Latin  name,  viajorica.  Marjoram,  the  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the 
Latin  major ica. 

History. — The  Origanum  was  well  known  to  the  Greek  and  Romans,  and 
was  a  favorite  decorative  plant  at  their  marriage  feasts,  Avhen  it  was  woven 
into  wreaths  to  crown  the  young  married  couple.  It  is  mentioned  by  Pliny 
and  Vergil.  It  was  brought  to  North  America  by  European  colonists,  and 
is  a  native  of  Europe  and  adjacent  parts  of  Asia. 

Use. — As  a  medicine  it  is  stimulant,  carminative,  tonic,  and  sudorific,  and 
it  is  prescribed  for  dyspepsia  and  other  disorders  of  the  stomach. 

The  Thompsonian  practitioners  use  the  dried  leaves  for  snuff  in  cephalic 


Origanum  vulgare  (Common  Marjoram). 


LAB  I  AT  .E.  203 

difficulties.     The  leaves  are  nse.l  for  lea  as  table  leverage.  an.l  are  preferred 

hv  some  to  teas  from  China. 

The  oil  is  very  sharp,  and  use.l  in  lininu.nts  for  spra.ns  and  rheumatism. 

On  account  of  its  beauty  it  is  a  favorite  plant  in  the  tl<nver-garden. 

THYMUS    L       Calyx   bilabiate,    with  10  to  l:i  stride,  o-toothecl,  :i 

upper  teeth  short,  triangular,  lower  pair  linear   subulate   ascending ; 

rmolH  •>-lippe(l,  upper  lip  notched,  lower  lip  :5-lobed,  lobes  equal  or 

^^lolli  W  stamens  4,  mostly  -^^ted  ;  hl^ient.  str^^^^^^ 

divergent.      Leaves  small,  entire,   strongly  veined,     lerennial   heib, 

or  woodv. 

I     T  vulgaris    L.     (Sweet  Thyme.)      Stem  a  foot  high,  slender,  woody, 

branched      Leaves  sessile,  linear-lanceolate  or  ovate,  quarter  of  an  inch  l<>ng. 

edges  revolute,  hoary,  especially  beneath,  and  <lotted 

with  oil-glands.     Flowers  small,  purple,  in  terminal 

globose  heads,  occasionally  a  few  lower  whorls.     In 

a  state  of  nature,  clothed  with  a  gray  pubescence  ; 

under  cultivation,  greener,  more  luxuriant,  and  barely 

tomentose  ;  fragrant,  pungent,  and  aromatic.     1  eren- 

nial  herl).     July. 

•>    T  serpyllum.  L.     Stem  slender,  much-branched, 

procumbent,  hard,  approachiug  woodiness  at  the  base, 

forming  low,  dense  tufts,  6  to  12  inches  in  diameter, 

and  covered  with  Howers.     Leaves  very  small,  ovate  

or  oblong  fringed  at  the  base  by  a  few  long  hairs  on  thymus  vuloaris 

each  side;    floral  leaves  smaller.      Flowers  usually  6  (Thyme). 

in  a  whorl,  without  any  other  bracts  than  the  floral 

leaves,  forming  sh.n-t,  terminal,  loose,  leafy  spikes;  calyx  hairy,  and  the  whole 
plant  sometimes  clothed  with  hoary  hairs. 

Geograph!J. -Thyme  is  indigenous  to  Spain  and  other  parts  of  southern 
Europe  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  mountains  of  (,reece  and  the 
islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  British  Isles,  and  north  to  southern  Siberia. 

Et,jmoloc,>,.-Th,jmus  is  from  the  Greek  e.^os,  signifying  'courage  o, 
"  strength/'  Vulgaris,  Latin  vulgus,  signifies  "  common.  Serpylum,  Latin 
means ''creeping/'  and  is  due  to  the  prostrate  character  of  this  species 
Thume,  the  common  name,  is  a  contraction  of  the  generic  name. 

Histon,  -Thvme  was  known  to  the  ancient  Romans,  who  used  it  in  various 
ways  to  season  food.  It  was  in  modern  times  described  by  l^ournefort,  and 
was  brouc^ht  to  North  America  by  European  colonists.  It  was- a  favorite 
aroma  ic  herb  of  the  Greeks,  and  abounded  on  Mt.  Ilymettus  near  Athens, 
"for  its  thvnie  ami  honey.  Ovid.  Vergil,  an.l  Pliny,  all  speak  of  the 
thyme  in  connection  with  bees;  and  honey  made  from  the  thyme  possessed 
the  flavor  of  the  plant,  an.l  was  on  that  account  highly  esteeme.l. 
"-Thvme  is  use.l  in  manv  culinary  prep.rati.u.s  for  flavoring  ..auces. 
grav  es,  ehoe'se.  and  meats,  sausage,  etc.  The  plant  yiel.ls  to  ^-ti llation  an 
Lential  oil.  which  is  a  powerful  local  stimulant.  n  combination  with 
camphor  an.l  alcoh.>l,  it  is  use.l  as  a  liniment  for  chrome  rheumatism.  I  i. 
an  important  ingre.lient  in  liniments,  and  is  largely  used  for  low  grades  of 
seen  «s.  The  plant  is  also  .MupU.ye.l  for  .u>rdcrs  in  plante.  gr.mnd. 
•'Fhe  variegated  varieties.  T.  platif.>lia.  and  T.  auntol.a.  are  use.l  tor  that 
purpose. 


>r 
ies. 


204  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

SALVIA,  L.  (Sage.)  Calyx  striate,  2-lipped,  upper  lip  3-toothed  or 
entii'e,  lower  bifid,  throat  naked;  corolla  2-lipped,  gaping,  the  upper 
lip  straight  or  curved,  sometimes  notched,  the  lower  spreading  and 
3-lobed,  middle  larger  ;  perfect  stamens  2,  the  filaments  have  at  their 
summits  a  cross  thread,  the  transverse  connective,  one  end  of  which 
bears  a  perfect  half-anther.  The  other  end  has  on  it  a  defective  half- 
anther.  This  transverse  thi-ead  is  an  essential  character  of  this  large 
genus. 

1.  S.  ofl&cinalis,  L.  (Common  or  Garden  Sage.)  Stem  woody,  1  to  2  feet 
high.  Leaves  elliptical-lanceolate,  wrinkled,  margins  crenulated  ;  calyx  mu- 
cronate;  whorls  6-10-tlowered,  in  two  opposite  sets,  of  purplish-blue  flowers. 
Whole  plant  strongly  aromatic. 

Var.  variegata  has  leaves  spotted  with  white.  This  genus  has  about  400 
species,  though  S.  officinalis  is  the  only  one  of  culinary  importance. 

2.  The  S.  pomifera,  L.  (Apple-bearing  Sage),  is  found  upon  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  Upon  its  branches  appear  fleshy  tumors 
from  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  supposed  to  be  caused  by 
the  bite  of  an  insect. 

Geography.  —  The  home  of  the  sage  is  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  was  known  to  the  most  ancient  writers  on  medicine  and  botany  on  account 
of  its  medical  virtues  and  pleasant  odor.  From  ancient  time  it  has  been  cul- 
tivated throughout  middle  and  southern  Europe  and  the  British  Isles,  and  like 
similar  plants  was  brought  to  northeast  America  by  European  colonists.  It 
is  also  growing  in  British  India,  where  it  has  been  carried  by  the  English. 

The  genus  is  very  large,  and  some  of  the  species  are  found  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  The  home  of  the  S.  officinalis  and  S.  pomifera  is  the  Levant 
and  other  Mediterranean  countries.  The  S.  officinalis  grows  well  in  all  coun- 
tries between  35°  and  60°  of  the  north  temperate  zone.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  North  America,  but  not  naturalized ;  it  is  not  growing  except 
under  cultivation. 

Et ji molot] II .  —  Salvia,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Latin  sahms,  "  well,"  or 
"in  good  health,"  in  allusion  to  its  curative  qualities.  Officinalis,  the  specific 
name,  means  "of  the  shops."  Pomifera,  " apple-bearing,"  is  due  to  the  fleshy 
tumors  on  its  branches.  The  common  name,  sage,  is  said  to  be  due  to  prop- 
erties of  the  plant,  which  tend  to  strengthen  the  mind,  and  thereby  make 
men  wise. 

Use.  — The  sage  is  used  to  flavor  sausage,  for  stuffings  for  roast  poultry  and 
other  meats,  and  the  pulverized  dried  leaves  are  used  to  flaA'or  cheese.  An 
infusion  of  the  leaves  is  an  astringent  tonic  gargle.  The  cold  tea  is  adminis- 
tered for  nervous  headache ;  when  sweetened  with  honey,  the  sage  is  a  remedy 
for  canker  in  the  mouth  and  throat.  Gerard  says :  "  It  is  good  for  the  head 
and  brain.  It  quickens  the  memory  and  the  senses.  The  juice  of  the  leaves 
mixed  with  honey  is  good  for  those  who  spit  blood.  No  man  needs  to  doubt 
of  the  wholesomeness  of  sage."  It  was  also  used  in  his  day  as  a  hair-dye.  It 
is  used  as  a  cooling  drink  in  fevers,  and  is  an  important  plant  in  the  list  of 
domestic  remedies. 

There  are  many  species  used  for  ornamental  purposes.  A  variety  of 
S.  officinalis,  var.  variegata,  is  a  favorite,  and  there  are  many  with  very 
showy  flowers. 


LABIATJE. 


205 


ROSMARINUS,  L.  ( lloseiiuiry,  Dew  of  the  Sea.)  Calyx  bell-shaped, 
slightly  compressed,  -1-lipped,  upper  lip  concave,  iiiiimtely  3-toothed, 
lower  birid,  naked  within  ;  corolla  gai)ing,  downy,  pale-blue,  variegated 
with  purple  and  white,  tube  longer  than  the  calyx,  upper  lip  erect  and 
shortly  bitid,  the  lower  spreading  and  slit  into  three  segments,  the 
middle  segment  larger,  concave,  and  declined;  perfect  stamens  2, 
longer  than  the  upper  lip,  arched,  bearing  a  flexed  tooth  above  the 
base,  supporting  the  blue  oblong  anther;  style  as  long  as  the  stamens, 
thread-like,  2-cleft,  the  posterior  lobe  small ;  nutlets,  1  at  the  bottom 
of  the  calyx.  Shrub.  Leaves  narrow  and  entire.  Floral  leaves 
smaller.     Only  1  species. 

R.  officinalis,  L.  (Rosemary.)  Stem  erect,  4  feet  high,  inueh-hranched; 
branches  hairy  ;  braiichlets  4-sided  aud  dowuy.  Leaves  opposite,  nearly  sessile, 
au  inch  long,  narrow, 
linear,  obtuse,  entire, 
revolute,  dark-green, 
smooth  aud  shining 
above,  woolly,  veined, 
and  silvery  beneatli. 
Flowers  axillary  and 
terminal,  blue.  Both 
flowers  aud  leaves  have 
a  strong  odor,  resem- 
l)ling  camphor.  A  beau- 
tiful evergreen  shrub. 

Var.  variegata,  W., 
has  variegated  leaves. 
This,  with  otlier  varie- 
ties, are  under  cultiva- 
tion ;  but  the  K.  offici- 
nalis is  highly  valuable 
for  other  purpose.^. 

Geographi/.  —  The 
rosemary  is  no  doubt 
native  in  all  southern 
Europe.      It    is    found 

without  cultivation  on  the  Greek  islands  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  is  under 
cultivation  from  western  Europe  to  Japan,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  north 
temperate  zone.  It  is  a  favorite  in  the  gardens  of  Egypt,  and  is  cultivated 
in  Hindustan  for  medicinal  purposes.  As  no  native  name  is  found  for  it 
in  Asia,  it  is  inferable  that  it  has  been  introduced  iuto  those  countries  by 
Europeans. 

Eti/inolot/i/.  —  Rosmarinus  is  compounded  of  the  Latin  words  ros,  "dew," 
and  7uariiiits,  "  of  the  sea,"  —  dew  of  the  sea,  or  sea-dew.  Ojficinalis,  Latin, 
means  "  of  tlie  shops."  Varieguta,  Latin,  means  "  variegated."  Rosemarg  is 
without  doubt  a  corruption  of   rosniarhms. 

History.  —  When  it  was  introduced  into  use  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  Dioscorides,  Pliny,  Galen,  and  the  Arabic  physicians. 
It  was  known  to  the  Saxons  before  the  Norman  conquest,  and  no  doubt 
cultivated   by   them   iu   England.      Charleniiign*'    I'l-lered    it   planted   in    his 


Rosmarinus  officinalis  (Rosemarj-). 


206 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


garden  ;  Vergil  reeummeDds  it  for  the  use  of  bees;  and  Lindley  savs  the  deli- 
cate flavor  of  Narbonne  honey  is  due  to  access  of  the  bees  to  the  rosemary. 
It  was  brought  to  North  America  by  colonists  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.    • 

Use.  —  It  is  difficult  to  find  a  plant  to  which  greater  and  more  numerous 
qualities  have  been  attributed,  or  one  that  is  more  widely  known  or  in  greater 
repute  than  this  humble  shrub.  The  Greeks  bound  it  on  the  head  for  gar- 
lands. The  leaves  and  flowers  decorated  the  bride  to  indicate  fidelity.  Anne 
of  Cleves  wore  it  at  her  wedding  with  Henry.  It  was  laid  upon  the  coffin, 
throAvn  into  the  open  grave,  or  carried  in  the  hand  at  funerals  to  indicate  that 
the  mourners  would  remember  the  dead.  A  sprig  was  worn  to  proclaim  that 
the  wearer  had  repented.  Queen  Bess  adorned  the  walls  of  Hampton  Court 
with  rosemary.  It  was  always  found  in  the  woman's  department  of  the  gardens 
of  the  high-born,  and  there  was  an  English  proverb,  that  "  rosemary  grows 
where  the  mistress  is  master."  We  have  not  space  to  relate  half  of  what  has 
been  said  of  this  little  shrub.  It  is  highly  aromatic  in  all  its  parts.  The 
flowers  are  distilled  to  procure  the  oil  of  rosemary,  which  is  an  ingredient 
in  the  perfumery  of  Hungary  water  and  eau  de  cologne ;  it  is  used  also  to 
flavor  spirits  and  liqueurs.  It  is  used  in  making  the  well-known  soap  lini- 
ment, and  the  compound  spirits  of  lavender.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  the  manu- 
facture of  nearly  all  perfumery  and  of  toilet  soaps.  The  pulverized  leaves  are 
used  for  snuff. 


NEPETA,  L.  Calyx  cylindrical,  marked  with  15  striae  or  nerves, 
5-toothed,  generally  oblique,  barely  2-lipped;  corolla  slender  below, 
swollen  in  the  throat,  upper  lip  emarginate,  lower 
one  spreading,  3-lobed,  middle  lobe  largest,  crenate, 
marked  with  crimson  dots,  margin  turned  over; 
stamens  4,  ascending  under  the  upper  lip,  near  to- 
gether. Perennial  or  annual  herb.  Leaves  some- 
times lobed  or  incised. 

A  large  genus ;  some  of  the  species  are  cultivated 
for  ornamental  purposes. 

N.  cataria.  L.     (Catnip  or  catmint.)     Stem  square,  3 
feet  liigh,  branched ;  whole  plant  hoary.     Leaves  cordate, 
coarsely  crenate-toothed  and  petioled.     Flowers  crowded, 
in  large,  hoary  spikes,  whorled,  Avhite  or  purplish.     July 
Nepeta  catakia        to  September. 

(Catnip).  Geography.  —The  home  of  the  Nepeta  Cataria  is  Europe 

and  western  Asia.     It  is  found  throughout  the  countries  of 

the  Levant.     It  was  brought  to  North  America  by  European  settlers,  from 

whose  gardens  it  has  escaped,  and  is  found  growing  freely  about  dwellings 

and  by  the  roadsides  without  cultivation. 

Etymology. — Nepeta,  the  generic  name  of  this  plant,  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  it  because  it  was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  naturalists  at  Nepet,  a 
town  in  Tuscany.  It  is  also  claimed  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  it  cures  the 
bite  of  the  nepa,  a  scorpion.  Cataria,  the  specific  name,  arises  from  the  fact 
that  cats  delight  in  it,  take  it  for  medicine,  and  roll  upon  it  when  opportunity 
offers.  Catnep  or  catnip,  the  popular  name,  was  given  for  the  reason  that 
cats  bite  it  or  nip  it. 


LABIATJE. 


207 


Use  —  Catuip  is  au  important  article  in  the  materia  tnedica  of  the  matron. 
Tea  niade  of  the  dried  leaves,  stems,  and  Hower-buds  is  administered  to  mfauts 
to  relieve  pains  in  the  bowels  and  to  promote  sleep.  Herbal  practitioners 
claim  for  it  the  qualities  of  a  febrifuge,  carn.inative,  tonic,  and  soporifac.  and 
a  slight  narcotic. 

MARRUBIUM,  L.  Calvx  tubular,  woolly,  5-U)-toothed,  with  a 
correspondino-  number  of  strii^,  teeth  erect  or  spreading,  setaceous, 
alternately  shorter,  erect  or  hooked ;  corolla  2-lipped,  upper  lip  erect, 
tlattish,  sometimes  divided,  lower  lip  spreading,  nearly  flat  or  con- 
cave :3-lobed,  middle  lobe  largest  and  notched,  tube  the  length  of 
the  calyx;  stamens  shorter  than  corolla,  4  in  number;  filaments 
parallel  under  the  upper  side  of  corolla;  anthers  2-ceUed;  verticils 
manv-flowered,  globose,  with  slender  bracts.  Leaves  w'oolly  and 
wrinkled,  rounded  at  the  base,  serrate;  floral  leaves  similar  to  the 
others  in  form.     Flowers  white  or  purple.     Perennial  herbs. 

No.  of  species,  30. 

M.  vulgare,  L.  (Hoarhound.) 
Stem  12  to  18  inches  in  height, 
hoary,  branching  at  the  base,  or 
numerous  stems  from  the  same 
root.  Leaves  ovate,  rounded  at 
the  base,  crenate-toothed,  wrinkled, 
hoary,  lighter  underneath,  on  short 
stalks.  Flowers  white,  sessile,  in 
dense,  globose  verticils ;  nutlets 
dark-broAvn,  obovate,  and  truncate. 
July. 

Geographf/. —  It  is  native  in  the 
countries  of  the  Levant,  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  other  regions  around 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  at 
the  present  day  found  growing  in 

gardens  all  over  Europe  in  the  temperate  zone.  It  was  brought  to  the 
Atlantic  States  in  America  by  European  colonists,  and  escaping  from  gar- 
dens is  found  growing  without  cultivation  about  dwellings.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  temperate  zone  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  keeping  pace 
with  civilization. 

Etymologi/.  —  Marrubiu7n  is  derived  from  Marniviim,  an  ancient  city  of 
Italv,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Fucine.  Vulgare,  the  specific  name,  signifies 
"  common."  Hoarhound,  the  common  name,  is  due  to  the  hoary  appearance 
of  the  plant ;  hound  is  from  houn,  "  bitter,"  or  "  disagreeable." 

//i.s7o/-_y.  —  This  j.lant  was  known  in  the  days  of  Theopiirastus.  IMiny,  wiio 
lived  300  years  later,  also  speaks  of  it.  In  "those  days  the  plant  had  a  high 
reputation  for  curing  pulmonary  dise.ases. 

Use.  —  A»  a  remedy,  the  ancients  attached  great  value  to  hoarhound,  and 
more  particularly  for  pulmonary  diseases.  At  the  present  day  it  is  a  popular 
domestic  remedy  for  coughs,  colds,  and  affections  of  the  lungs,  administered 
in  teas,  syrups,  and  candies.  The  hoarhound  has  au  aromatic  smell,  but  a 
verv  bitter  flavor. 


MARRUBIUM  ^•ULGARE  (Hoarhouud). 


208 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Order  XLIII.     CHENOPODIACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  small,  sometimes  polygamous,  sessile  or  pediceled, 
solitary  or  agglomerated,  axillary  or  terminal,  bracteate  or  naked; 
calyx  o-3-sepals,  greenish  and  coherent  at  base,  imbricate  in  the  bud ; 
corolla  wanting ;  stamens  hypogynous,  or  as  many  as  sepals,  or  fewer 
at  the  bottom  of  calyx,  opposite  the  sepals;  filaments  thread-like, 
mostly  free,  sometimes  united  just  at  the  base  in  a  cup ;  ovary  egg- 
shaped,  usually  free,  1-celled ;  style  2-3-lobed  or  2-3  styles.  Fruit,  a 
utricle ;  seed  mostly  free,  lens-shaped  or  kidney-shaped.  "^  Leaves  alter- 
nate, simple,  sessile  or  petioled,  entire,  toothed  or  sinuate,  frequently 
fleshy,  without  stipules.  Herbaceous  or  suffrutescent,  sometimes 
shrubby. 

No.  of  genera,  80  ;  species,  520 ;  cosmopolitan  ;  mostly  in  temperate 
climates. 

BETA,  Tournefort.  Calyx  hollow  and  contracted  at  the  mouth, 
5-cleft,  persistent,  becoming  hardened  at  the  base ;  stamens  5 ;  ovary 
depressed,  partly  inferior ;  stigmas  2,  the  small  bladdery  fruit,  with  a 
thickish,  hardened,  depressed  pericarp,  enclosed  in  the  calyx:  seed 
horizontal.     Leaves  alternate ;  flowers  in  spikes.     Herbs. 

B.  vulgaris,  Moq.  (Beet.)  Stem  2  to  5  feet  high,  angled,  branched  in  form 
of  panicle,  appearing  the  second  year.     Leaves  of  the  first  year  6  to  15  inches 

long,  4  to  8  inches  wide,  spatulate,  edges 
wavy ;  radical  leaves  of  the  second  year 
like  those  of  the  first ;  stem-leaves  smaller, 
of  dingy  copper-color  to  dark-purple,  ovate, 
lanceolate;  root  biennial,  3  to  10  inches  in 
diameter,  and  5  to  15  inches  long,  fusi- 
form, tapering  downwards  to  a  slender 
fibrous  point.  Color,  from  dark-yellow  to 
dark-red.  Flowers  greenish-wliite,  in  ses- 
sile, head-like  cymes,  forming  slender  spikes, 
arranged  in  leafy  panicles;  appearing  in 
July.     Seed  rugose  or  wrinkled. 

The  beet  is  propagated  from  the  seed, 
and  sports  freely,  producing  many  varie- 
ties, the  general  forms  of  which  are  two, 
—  the  long  beet,  and  the  turnip  beet. 

Var.  cicla,  the  long,  cylindrical-rooted 
beet. 

Var.  rapa,  flat  or  turnip-rooted  beet. 
Var.  mangel-wiirzel,  large-rooted  beet. 
Under  these  forms  there  are  many  varieties,  as  may  be  seen  by  consulting 
the  catalogues  of  the  seedsmen,  and  the  varieties  under  cultivation  are  very 
constant. 

Geography.  —  The  beet  grows  well  in  rich  soil  throughout  the  middle  parts 
of  the  temperate  zone,  especially  in  Europe,  north  Africa,  and  the  temperate 
parts  of  British  India.  Tt  was  brought  to  North  America  by  British  and 
Dutch  colonists,  and  is  largely  grown  here. 


Beta  vulgaris  rapa  (Turnip  Beet). 


CHENOPODIArE.^.. 


209 


Etymuluyy.  —  Beta,i\\Q.  j^pueric  name,  is  said  to  l)e  from  tho  Celtic  word 
6e«,  "  red,"  due  to  the  color  of  the  root.  It  is  also  claimed  to  he  from  6e^e, 
Anglo-Saxou,  hut  derived  from  the  Latin  beta,  used  hy  Tliny.  The  specific 
name,  vulgaris,  is  Latin,  and  signifies  "  common."  Beet,  the  common  name, 
is  a  mere  corruption  of  the  scientific  name. 

History.  —  The  heet  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  along  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  adjacent  c<juntries.  The  /jeta  maritima  is  he- 
lieved  to  be  the  original  plant,  the  seed  of  which  is  supposed  to  have  giveu 
rise  to  the  B.  vulgaris  of  the  gardens,  out  of  which  have  grown  by  sports  the 
numerous  varieties  that  now  exist.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  ami  Romans 
at  least  500  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  taken  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Agri- 
cola,  A.  D.  79,  and  the  spread  into  Gaul  and 
Germany  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  conquest 
of  those  countries  by  the  Romans. 

Use.  —  The  beet  is  an  important  table  vege- 
table and  pickle,  and  in  Germany,  France, 
and  the  British  Isles  is  used  as  a  salad.  lu 
central  Europe,  Germany  and  France  espe- 
cially, it  is  extensively  used  for  sugar-mak- 
ing, and  very  largely  for  a  feed  for  stock. 

The  sugar-bearing  property  of  the  beet 
although  discovered  in  Germany,  was  first 
turned  to  practical  use  in  France  in  the  reign 
of  Napoleon  I.,  who,  to  render  France  inde- 
pendent of  foreign  nations  for  sugar,  en- 
couraged the  manufacture  of  beet-sugar  at 
home.  From  France  it  spread  into  adjacent 
European  countries,  and  especially  into  Bel- 
gium, Germany,  Austria  and  Russia;  and  at 
present  beet  growing  and  sugar  making  from  the  beet  are  ranked  among  the 
great  industries  of  central  and  western  Europe. 

Statistics.  —  The  annual  product  in  Europe  is  about  000,000,000  bushels.  An 
acre  will  produce  4,000  jjounds  of  sugar.    An  acre  of  cane  yields  7,200  pounds. 

The  crude  beet-sugar  contains  a  greater  number  of  foreign  substances  than 
cane-sugar,  and  the  refining  process  is  more  difiicult  and  expensive.  Its 
sweetening  power  is  identical. 


Beta  \TrLGAHis  cicla  (Long  Bee^,). 


SPINACIA,  Tourii.  (Spinach.  Spinage.)  Flowers  dioecious  :  bract- 
lets  ;  staminate  flowers  with  a  I-o-parted  calj-x,  segments  equal, 
stamens  on  the  receptacle,  opposite  the  segments  of  the  calyx 
of  the  fertile  flowers  tubular,  swelled  in  the  middle,  :5-toothed 
egg-shaped,  1-celled,  1-ovuled,  with  4  lengthened  stigmas. 
1-seeded,  included  within  the  hardened  2-1-horned  calyx 
flattened.  Leaves  alternate 
axillary.     Annual  herV). 


calyx 
ovary 
Fruit 
seeds 


and   petioled.      Flowers    greenisii    and 


S.  oleracea,  Mill.     (Spinach.)    Stem  is  to  24  inches  high,  slightly  branched, 
more  frequently  simple.      Loaves  3  to  .5  inches    long,  tapering  towards  the 
base,  fretjuently  hastate  and  lanceolate  ;  leaf-stalk  varies  from  I  to  4  inches  iu 
pR.  Fl.— L5 


210 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


length.  Flowers  axillary,  densely  clnstered  or  in  raceme-like  panicles, 
greenish.  Fruit  or  ripened  calyx  generally  armed  with  2  or  more  strong, 
blunt  spines  ;  in  some  A'arieties  the  fruit  is  smooth  or  without  spines.  Flowers 
in  June. 

This  plant,  which  is  grown  from  the  seed,  sports,  and  many  varieties  have 
arisen.  The  most  important  ones  are  the  round,  smootli-leaved,  and  the 
prickly-leaved  ;  the  last  is  more  hardy,  and  best  for  autumn  planting. 

A  variety  known  as  the  Flanders  Spinach  has  double-hastate  and  wrinkled 
leaves.     The  Large  Prickly  has  very  large  leaves,  rounded   or  spatulate. 

The  Lettuce-leaved  has 
rounded,  deep  green, 
smooth  leaves  on  short 
stalks.  These  are  the 
favorite  varieties ;  there 
are  others  intermediate. 

Geographic .  —  The 
spinach  grows  well 
throughout  the  middle 
of  the  north  temperate 
zone,  and  is  found  in 
the  kitchen  and  market 
gardens  of  the  Old 
World,  from  Hindustan 
to  the  western  shores 
and  islands  of  Europe ; 
and  in  the  eastern 
United  States  of  North 
America.  It  also  has 
been  carried  to  the 
islands  of  the  South 
Pacific  by  European 
colonists. 
Etymology.  —  Spinacia  is  derived  from  the  Latin  spina,  "  a  thorn,"  on  account 

of  the  armed  condition  of  the  seed-vessel.     Oleracea  is  from  the  Latin  oleraceus, 

"  a  pot  herb."  Spinach,  or  spinage,  the  common  name,  is  a  corruption  of  spinacia. 
History.  —  The  home  of  this  plant  is  Persia,  whence  it  has  found  its  way  by 

commerce,  colonization,  and  travellers  to  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 
Just  how  or  when  it  was  taken  to  Europe  is  not  known.     It  was  brought  to 

the  United  States  from  Europe,  where  it  receives  much  attention  by  gardeners. 

It  is  fit  for  use  early  in  the  spring,  to  which  circumstance  its  popularity  and 

market  value  are  largely  due. 

Use.  —  The  leaves  of  spinach  are  boiled  with  salt  meats,  or  alone,  and  served 

plain  or  with  a  vinegar-sauce,  or  eaten  with  salt  only  as  a  condiment.     It  is 

one  of  the  most  delicate  of  all  the  plants  used  for  greens,  and  on  this  account 

justly  ranks  high  as  a  table  vegetable. 


Spinacia  oleracea  (Spinach). 


Order  XLTV.    POLYGONACE^. 


Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous,  without  involucre ;  perianth  of  3-6 
segments,  inner  ones  or  all  often  petaloid ;  stamens  1  to  9  or  6  to  8. 
sometimes  12  to  17 ;  ovary  free,  occasionally  adhering  below,  1-celled, 


POLYGONACE^. 


211 


l-ovuled,  ovule  basilar  and  erect.     Fruit  ;3-angled,  .sometimes  winged. 
Leaves  alternate  and  entire,  largely  collected  at  the  base  of  the  stern, 
rarely  opposite,  mostly  with  clasping  petioles  and  sheathing  stipules. 
Herbaceous  or  frutescent,  and  sometimes  climbing. 
Xo.  oi  genera,  about  80;  species,  COO. 

FAGOPYRUM,  Tourn.  Calyx  composed  of  5  colored  equal  sepals 
or  parts  ;  stamens  8,  alternating  with  8  honey-glands.  Number  of 
styles  3,  capitate.     Fruit  3-angled,  in  lax  or  dense  cymes. 

1.  F.  esculentum,  Tourn.  (Buckwheat.)  Stem  smooth,  1  to  3  feet  high, 
branched,  in  an  irregular  panicle,  furrowed,  stout  and  liollow.  Leaves  vary- 
ing, cordate,  triangular,  or  liastate.  Flowers  in  terminal  and  axillary  cymo.se 
panicles,  rose  white.  P>uit  3-angled,  nut  or  grain  inclosed  in  a  dark-colored, 
coriaceous  shell  ;  kernel  white. 

Flowers  in  August  ;  fruit  ripens  in  September  and  October. 

2.  F.  Tartaricum  is  a  hardy  species  grown  in  Tartary  and  in  northern 
Europe,  endures  light  frost,  differs  froni  /'.  esculentum  in  the  leaves,  which  are 
broader  than  long,  with  acute  lobes.     Fruit 

triangular,   lance-shaped,   with    the  angles 
sinuate-dentate  ;  calyx  very  small. 

3.  F.  emarginatum  differs  from  the  last 
in  its  fruit,  whose  angles  are  margined  by  a 
broad  wing. 

Geography.  —  The  zone  of  the  buckwheat 
is  not  very  wide ;  it  is  found  in  Russia,  far 
north,  and  grows  well  in  Canada  and  tlie 
northern  United  States.  It  will  grow  south 
of  35°  of  latitude,  but  does  not  tlirive  in  hot 
climates.  Though  it  does  not  endure  the 
frost,  it  will  not  fill  unless  it  has  a  tempera- 
ture as  low  as  35°  Fahrenheit. 

Etymology.  —  Fagopyrum  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  words  (f>vy6s,  "  beech,"  and  nvpos. 
"  wheat,"  —  beech  wheat  or  grain.  Escu- 
lentum, the  specific  name,  is  Latin,  and  signifies  that  the  grain  is  eatable. 
The  common  name,  buckwheat,  is  derived  from  the  Angle-Saxon  word  boc, 
"  beech,"  and  the  word  "  wheat "  signifying  "  beech-wheat."  Liuuanis  called 
this  plant  Polygonum  fagopyrum,  "mmiy-augled  beech-wheat."  Tournefort, 
the  great  French  botanist,  named  it  Fagopyrum  esculentum, '' ei\tii]>\e  beech- 
wheat."  Tartaricum,  Latin,  is  derived  from  Tartary,  the  home  of  this  species. 
Emarginatum,  Latin,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  angles  of  the  fruit  are  mar- 
gined by  broad  wings. 

History.  — \t  is  a  native  of  central  Asia  and  Tartary,  and  is  found  growing 
without  cultivation  in  the  valley  of  the  Volga,  and  along  the  .sliores  of  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  was  carried  to  Spain  by  the  Moors,  and  has  thence  spread 
tiiroughout  northern  and  central  Europe,  where  it  has  become  naturalized. 
In  France  it  is  called  IVe  Saracin,  or  Sarasin  Wheat. 

Another  account  of  its  introduction  int(^  Europe  is  that  it  was  brought  by 
the  Crusaders  from  Asia  Minor,  in  wiiose  northern  fields  it  was  found  under 
cultivation,  which  would  account  for  its  French  name. 


Fagopyrum  esculentum 
(Buckwheat). 


212 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Still  another  account  is  that  it  was  brought  into  Russia  from  Tartary  early 
in  1700,  and  thence  spread  through  Europe. 

It  was  introduced  into  northeast  America  by  European  colonists. 

Cultivation.  —  In  latitude  40°  to  45°  it  is  sown  about  the  1st  of  July,  and 
ripens  in  September.  It  is  planted  when  practicable  upon  new  ground,  and 
leaves  the  land  in  a  good  condition  for  next  year's  planting  of  other  crops. 
The  yield  ranges  in  the  northern  and  northwestern  states  from  20  to  50 
bushels  to  the  acre,  but  30  bushels  is  a  satisfactory  yield.  In  the  south  Atlan- 
tic States  the  yield  is  less,  ranging  from  10  to  25  bushels. 

Use.  —  Although  this  grain  has  not  the  importance  of  the  cereals,  yet 
it  constitutes  the  bread  of  a  large  number  of  the  people  of  central  Asia  and 
northern  Europe.  It  is  very  popular  as  a  material  for  griddle-cakes.  In 
northern  Europe  it  is  used  in  making  a  dark  bread,  and  there  too  the  grain  is 
hulled  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  rice.  It  is  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle 
and  poultry. 

BHETJM,  L.  Calyx  colored,  sepals  6,  in  double  series,  persistent; 
stamens  9,  opposite  the  outer  sepals ;  styles  3,  very  short  and  spread- 
ing ;  stigmas  3  ;  fruit  with  3  winged  angles.  Leaves  large,  mostly 
radical,  on  long  stalks.  Flowers  in  racemose  or  paniculate  fascicles. 
Perennial  herb. 

1.  R.  rhaponticum,  Linn.  (Rhubarb.)  Stem  stout,  hollow,  4  feet  high, 
furrowed ;  stipules  large  and  sheathing.     Leaves  entire,  cordate,  ovate,  obtuse, 

and  smooth,  12  to  24  inches  long  and 
10  to  15  wide,  cauliue  leaves  smaller; 
sepals  greenish,  with  white  margins. 
Root  large,  fleshy,  tuberous,  and  yel- 
low within. 

2.  R.  palmatum,  Linn.  Leaves 
5-lobed,  palmate,  rough ;  lobes  sinu- 
ate-toothed, acute. 

.3,  R.  undulatum,  Linn.  Leaves 
oval-cordate,  Avith  undulated  margins. 

4.  R.  compactum,  Linn.  Leaves 
with  a  general  heart-shaped  contour, 
but  interrupted  with  a  number  of 
deep  sinuses. 

The  last  three  are  the  species 
which  furnish  the  rhubarb-root  of 
commerce,  the  R.  palmatum  supply- 
ing the  larger  part. 
Several  varieties  have  been  obtained  by  sporting  and  hybridizing,  which 
furnish  very  large  leaf -stalks.  There  are  some  10  varieties,  that  for  one  or 
another  reason  recommend  themselves  to  the  cultivator.  The  Victoria  is 
admired  for  its  gigantic  size.  The  most  delicate  and  desirable  for  the  private 
garden  is  the  R.  compactum. 

Geography.  —  Rhubarb  will  grow  well  as  far  north  as  the  50th  parallel. 
The  market  is  supplied  by  the  products  of  regions  lying  between  35°  and  45°. 
Unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made  in  England  to  raise  it  for  the  druggist. 


Rheum  rhaponticum  (Rhubarb). 


PIPEHACE^..  213 

Darwin  states  that  the  root  grown  in  Knghind  does  not  possess  tli^  medical 
properties  of  that  raised  in  'I'artary.  It  is  found  also  growing  in  tropical 
India. 

Etjimologij.  —  Tlie  name  Rheum  is  from  Rha,  tjie  ancient  name  of  the  Volga 
river,  the  plant  liaviug  been  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  man  by  specimens 
procured  along  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  Rhaponticinn,  the  .specific  name  of  the 
plant  under  garden  cultivation,  and  from  which  the  several  varieties  have 
been  derived,  is  made  up  of  the  words  Rha,  the  name  of  the  Volga,  and  Pontus, 
a  district  of  country  where  the  plant  was  found.  l)e  C'andolle  gave  it  this 
name,  which  signifies  "  rhubarb  from  Pontus."  It  was  formerly  supposed  to 
be  tlie  species  wliich  produces  the  root  of  commerce,  and  it  has  also  been 
claimed  that  the  H.  palmatum  is  the  true  or  parent  species,  from  which  all 
others  have  arisen,  and  that  the  K.  compactum  is  the  original  species.  But 
the  properties  of  the  different  .species  and  varieties  are  so  similar  that  they 
may  be  substituted  for  each  other.  Rhubarb  is  a  contraction  of  rheum  bar- 
barum,  the  rheum  of  the  barbarians. 

Uistorij. — The  fine  medicinal  rhubarl)  known  as  Russian  or  Turkey  l\hu- 
barb  entirely  disappeared  from  commerce  in  18G.3.  It  derived  its  name  of 
Turkey  from  its  being  formerly  brought  into  Europe  through  the  Levantine 
ports,  and  in  more  recent  times  was  named  Russian  from  its  being  imported 
through  the  Russo-Chinese  frontier  town  of  Kiachta,  at  which  place  the  Rus- 
sian government  maintained  an  establishment  for  its  rigid  inspection  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years,  up  to  1863,  when  all  inspection  was  abolished. 
Neither  the  botanical  source  of  this  rhubarb  nor  the  j)lace  of  its  origin  were 
ever  known.  The  present  rhubarb  of  commerce,  known  as  China  or  Eai?t 
Indian  Rhul)arb,  is  collected  in  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Shensi  Kanshu  and 
Szechuen,  tlionce  sent  to  Hankow,  whence  it  reaches  Europe  and  America  by 
way  of  Shangliai.  It  is  defined  in  the  PharmacopaMa  of  the  Fnited  States  as 
"the  root  of  Rheum  officinale  and  of  other  undetermined  species  of  rheum." 

Use.  —  The  root  of  the  rheum  furnishes  one  of  the  most  reliable  substances 
in  the  materia  medlca.  It  is  cathartic,  astringent,  and  tonic  ;  and  is  largely 
used  in  alterative  medicines  and  in  preparations  to  correct  and  excite  the 
digestive  apparatus,  as  well  as  in  medicines  for  reducing  inflammatory  con- 
ditions of  the  bowels.     It  contains  much  oxalic  acid. 

The  leaf-stalk  is  u.sed  in  culinary  preparations,  —  tarts,  pies,  puddings, 
dumplings,  and  .sauce.  It  is  also  preserved  in  sugar.  It  is  now  found  in 
every  well-kept  kitchen-garden,  and  is  an  important  article  in  the  market- 
garden. 

Order  XLV.     PIPERACE^. 

Flowers  perfect  or  dioecious,  without  euvelope.s,  in  lou"',  pt^duucled 
spikes,  each  flower  protected  by  a  peltate  or  decurrent  bract ;  stamens 
2  or  3,  sometimes  0  to  many,  filaments  short ;  ovary  s(>ssile,  globular, 
of  3-4-distinct  carpels,  with  several  ovules,  or  1 -celled,  1-ovuled.  Berry 
dry  or  fleshy ;  seed  globose,  testa  thin,  cartilaginous.  Leaves  fre- 
quently succulent,  opposite  or  whorled,  occasionally  alternate,  entire; 
nerves  obscure,  reticulate  ;  petiole  short,  shcathinu  at  base.  Herbs  or 
.shrubs. 

No.  of  genera,  8;  species,  1,000.  Chiefly  tropical;  Asia  and 
America. 


214 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


PIPER,  Linn.  Flowers  without  perianth ;  stamens  2  to  4,  occasion- 
ally 5,  rarely  more;  filaments  short;  ovary  1-celled ;  stigmas  2  to  5. 
Fruit,  a  small  berry,  globular  or  egg-shaped ;  climbing  shi'ubs,  with 
alternate,  entire  leaves,  which  are  strongly  veined  or  nerved. 

1.  P.  betel,  Linn.  (Betel  Pepper.)  Stem  climbing,  5  to  8  feet  high,  or  long, 
knotted  at  the  nodes.  Leaves  opposite,  5  inches  long,  ovate,  acuminate,  uneven 
or  obhquely  cordate  at  base,  5-7-veined,  leathery,  glossy  above. 

There  are  over  600  species  of  the  Piper,  but  this  and  the  following  are  the 
most  important. 

Geography.  —  The  Piper  betel  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plant,  and  is 
distributed  throughout  the  regions  of  southern  Asia. 

Etymology  and  History.  —  Piper  and  pepper  are  derived  from  the  Greek 
iriiTipi  and  TreVept,  pepper.    Betel,  the  specific  name,  is  the  Malabar  name  of  the 

plant.    It  is  native  to  Java,  and  is  cultivated 
wherever  the  betel-nut  grows. 

Use.  —  The  leaves  are  sparingly  sprinkled 
with  shell-lime,  and  then  wrapped  around 
slices  of  betel-nut,  and  in  that  state  they 
are  used  as  a  masticatory.  They  are  also 
used  for  the  same  purpose  without  the 
betel-nut. 

Medical  practitioners  among  the  Hindus 
recommend  their  use  in  the  morning  fasting, 
also  after  meals  and  on  retiring.  The  prop- 
erties of  the  betel-pepper  are  aromatic,  car- 
minative, stimulant,  and  astringent,  and  it 
is  said  to  be  a  specific  for  headache. 

In  connection  with  the  betel-nut,  it  is  used 
by  about  one  tenth  of  tlie  whole  human  race, 
yet  is  not  an  important  article  of  foreign 
Piper  nigrum  (Black  Pepper).  commerce. 

2.  P.  nigrum,  L.  (Black  Pepper.)  Stem  climbing,  20  to  30  feet  long, 
with  jointed  or  swelled  processes  at  the  nodes,  branching  in  forks.  Leaves 
broadly  ovate,  lanceolate,  5-7-veined,  petioled,  and  3  to  6  inches  long,  dark- 
green.  Flowers  in  slender  spikes,  opposite  the  leaves,  3  to  6  inches  long, 
greenisli.  Fruit,  a  globular,  1-celled  berry,  as  large  as  a  middling-sized 
pea,  sessile,  in  loose  clusters,  to  the  number  of  20  to  30  on  a  drooping  stalk ; 
the  berries  are  first  green,  then  red,  and  when  ripe,  yellow.  A  perennial  shrub. 
This  species  produces  both  the  black  and  the  white  pepper  of  commerce. 

Var.  longum  produces  a  fruit  similar  to  the  P.  nigrum,  but  inferior  in  strength 
and  flavor,  and  is  used  to  adulterate  the  P.  nigrum. 

Geography.— The  home  of  the  pepper-plant  is  southern  Asia  and  the  adja- 
cent isles.  T'epper  has  been  an  important  article  of  commerce  from  the 
earliest  times  of  communication  between  the  East  Indies  and  Europe,  and  was 
cultivated  in  southern  India,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Malabar,  but  especially  at 
Bantam,  in  Java,  whence  the  earliest  shipments  were  made. 

Etymology.  —  The  specific  name,  nigrum,  from  the  Latin,  signifying  "  black," 
is  due  to  the  color  of  tlie  berry  when  fit  for  market. 

History.  —  It  was  known  to  the  early  botanists,  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides, 
and  Pliny.     It  was  in  early  times  carried  by  caravans  through  lower  Arabia 


MYKlsriCACE^.  215 

aud  then  across  the  Red  Sea  into  Africa,  and  so  to  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, where  a  heavy  duty  was  laid  on  it.  The  Aral>ian  physicians  of 
the  niitUUe  ages  used  it  as  a  medicine.  The  duties  to  whidi  popper  was  suh- 
jeet  were  so  great  in  tiie  middle  ages  tliat  only  the  rich  were^al)le  to  procure 
it.  In  1623  the  impost-tax  in  (ireat  Britain  was  five  shillings  per  pound,  and 
even  as  late  as  1823  it  was  two-and-sixpence  per  pound,  eciual  to  63  cents. 

Cultivation.  — Tho  plant  grows  easily  from  slips,  and  is  usually  slipped 
heneath  trees  which  it  is  to  climb.  It  fruits  the  first  year  after  slipping,  hut 
reaches  its  maximum  crop  in  the  fifth  year.  A  plant  in  full  hearing  yields  10 
pounds,  and  will  last  20  years. 

Chemistn/  —The  chemist  obtains  from  the  pepper-corn  or  berry  an  es.sen- 
tial  oil  and  a  resin,  on  which  its  pungency  depends.  The  oil  known  as  the  oil 
of  black  pepper  gives  the  peculiar  fiavor.  There  is  also  present  a  tasteless 
alkaline  substance  known  as  piperine,  CnHigNOsi,  ^vhich  forms  four-sided 
prismatic  crvstals.  .  .    . 

Preparation.  — It  is  prepared  for  use  by  picking  when  in  a  .semi-ripe  state, 
and  drving ;  in  drving  it  turns  black,  hence  its  name.  The  white  pepper  is 
taken  from  tlie  plant  when  nearly  ripe,  macerated  in  water,  aud  the  outer  skin 
being  removed,  is  bleached.  The  pungency  of  pepper  is  largely  due  to  an  oil 
which  resides  in  the  cuticle,  hence  white  pepper  is  not  so  strong  as  the  black. 

Use.  —  Black  pepper  is  used  in  civilized  nations  in  almost  all  the  prepara- 
tions into  which  meat  or  fish  enter,  aud  in  small  quantities  is  supposed  to 
promote  digestion.  ... 

It  was  formerly  used  in  medical  practice  as  a  stimulant  aud  carminative  m 
disorders  of  the  stomach. 

Order   XLVI.     MYRISTICACE^. 

Flowers  dicBcious,  inconspicuous,  with  simple  perianth ;  male  flowers 
with  3-15  monadelphous  stamens ;  anthers  often  on  the  margin  of  a 
broad  disk ;  female  flowers  with  1-celled  ovary,  having  1  erect  ovule ; 
capsule  fleshy ;  seed  erect,  nut-like,  enveloped  in  an  aromatic,  laciniated 
aril;  testa  hard.  Leaves  alternate,  exstipulate,  coriaceous,  simple, 
entire,  pubescent  or  scaly.     Small  aromatic  trees  or  shrubs. 

Only  1  genus,  with  80  species ;  tropical. 

MYKISTICA,  L.  Flowers  dioecious,  perianth  leathery,  tubular,  some- 
what bell-shaped,  2-4-parted.  Staminate  flowers,  with  3  to  lo  fila- 
ments, united  into  a  column  which  terminates  in  a  toothed  disk; 
anthers  attached  to  the  filaments  along  the  backs,  and  their  dehi.s- 
cence  turned  outwards,  opening  longitudinally.  Pistillate  flowers  with 
a  single  style ;  stigma  entire  or  lobed ;  ovule  solitary,  fruit  api^earing 
at  the  base  or  bottom  of  the  pistillate  flower ;  capsule  fleshy,  about  the 
size  of  an  apricot,  and  shaped  like  a  short  pear;  the  outer  covering  is 
half  an  inch  thick.  When  ripe  it  opens  by  a  smooth  suture  which 
extends  from  the  stem  all  around  to  the  opposite  side,  separating  the 
shell  into  two  equal  parts.  When  partly  open  it  exposes  the  nut  en- 
veloped in  a  network,  which  is  thn  mac^  of  commerce ;  inside  th.- 
mace  is  the  nut,  inclosing  a  hard,  black  shell,  inside  of  which  is  the 
kernel  or  nutmeg. 


216  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

1.  M.  fragrans,  Houtt.  (Nutmeg  and  Mace.)  Trunk  20  to  35  feet  high, 
much-branched,  braucheri  erect,  forming  a  tree  wliich  resembles  the  pear-tree ; 
bark  smooth,  ash-colored,  when  wounded  bleeding  a  glutinous  red  juice. 
Leaves  alternate,  on  short  petioles,  elliptical,  pointed,  wavy,  entire,  obliquely 
nerved,  bright-green  above,  grayish  beneath,  aromatic.  Flowers  and  fruit 
present  at  the  same  time  ;  flowers  inodorous,  small,  axillary,  1  to  3  on  a  stem ; 
calyx  smooth,  fleshy,  3-parted  ;  segments  sjareading  ;  corolla  wanting  ;  ovary 
oval ;  style  short,  with  2  stigmas.     Fruit  as  described  under  the  genus. 

There  are  many  species,  about  80  in  all ;  the  M.  fragrans  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, though  several  produce  aromatic  seeds. 

2.  M.  spuria,  Houtt.,  yields  a  mace,  which  is  first  yellow,  turning  red. 
From  wounds  in  the  bark  it  bleeds  a  red  sap,  sold  as  a  substitute  for  dragon's 
blood. 

3.  M.  fatua,  Houtt.,  yields  an  inferior  nutmeg,  called  long  or  wild  nutmeg. 
It  is  used  in  India,  but  does  not  enter  into  commerce. 

Geography.  —  The  nutmeg  requires  a  tropical  climate,  or  at  least  a  region 
of  no  frost.  It  has,  by  the  appointed  means  for  geographical  distribution  of 
plants,  —  the  winds,  waves,  birds,  and  by  human  agency,  —  been  carried  from 
the  Moluccas  to  the  mainland  of  both  hemispheres  and  their  adjacent  isles, 
and  occupies  at  present  a  geograpliical  belt  all  around  the  globe,  extending 
just  outside  the  tropics  in  both  hemispheres. 

Etymology.  —  Myr'istica,  the  generic  name,  is  from  the  Greek  ixvppa,  myrrh, 
due  to  the  aromatic  fruit  and  leaves.  Fragrans,  the  specific  name,  is  Latin, 
also  due  to  the  odor-bearing  fruit,  leaves,  and  the  oils  obtained  therefrom 
Nutmeg,  the  popular  name,  is  from  the  low  Latin  word  muscata,  a  nutmeg,  or 
a  musk-like  nut,  referring  to  the  perfume,  which  was  supposed  to  resemble  the 
odor  of  musk.     Mace  is  from  the  Greek  ixanep,  a  spice. 

History.  —  The  nutmeg  was  introduced  into  European  commerce  by  tlie 
Arabs  through  tlie  Red  Sea,  early  in  the  sixth  century.  An  account  of  the 
tree  and  place  of  its  growth  was  first  given  by  an  Arab  traveller  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  century. 

The  home  of  the  nutmeg  is  the  Molucca  islands,  but  especially  the  Banda 
group  of  the  Spice  Islands.  When  the  Dutch  first  came  into  possession  of 
these  islands,  they  attempted  to  confine  the  tree  to  a  very  few  of  them,  in 
order  the  better  to  monopolize  the  trade  as  they  did  of  the  clove.  When  the 
English  obtained  possession  of  them,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  they  made  an  effort  to  extend  the  area  of  growth,  and  introduced 
young  trees  into  Sumatra,  near  Bencoolen,  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  Mauritius, 
and  Madagascar,  and  also  into  the  West  Indies.  The  tree  comes  into  bear- 
ing after  ten  years,  but  does  not  yield  its  largest  crops  till  after  100  years, 
producing  three  full  crops  in  a  year. 

Preparation.  —  When  the  nutmeg  is  harvested,  the  mace  is  removed  and 
pickled  in  salt,  afterwards  dried  in  the  sun  and  packed  in  boxes,  and  sent  to 
market.  The  nut  is  dried  either  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat,  Avhen  it 
shrinks  so  that  the  shell  may  be  broken  witliout  damage  to  the  kernel.  The 
kernel  is  then  soaked  in  sea-water  and  lime,  after  which  it  is  placed  in  heaps 
and  left  to  heat  sufficiently  to  destroy  its  vitality,  when  it  is  fit  for  market 
The  kernels  that  come  to  the  United  States  take  100  to  the  pound  ;  those  sent 
to  England,  about  60,  or  about  4  to  the  ounce. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  of  the  nutmeg  are  tonic,  digestive,  stimu- 
lant, and  intoxicating.     In  excessive  doses  it  produces  stupor,  delirium,  and 


LAURACE^. 


217 


death.  It  is  used  in  tlic  kitchen  to  fiiivor  dessert  sauces,  and  as  a  spice  and 
an  aromatic  addition  to  cordials,  and  was  at  one  time  a  favorite  perfume. 

The  Hindu  physicians  pulverize  it,  and  use  it  for  a  poultice  for  nervous 
headache,  applying  it  ahove  the  eyiit^. 

The  odor  or  flavor,  as  well  as  the  medicinal  propertie.>^,  depend  upon  the 
essential  oil,  of  which  the  nuts  yield  about  six  per  cent.  Tiie  mace  also  yields 
an  oil  in  somewhat  larger  (juantities,  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  nut. 

The  mace  also  contains  a  fixed  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  crushing  and 
pressure  ;  used  in  pomades,  soaps,  and  aromatic  plasters. 

Propiigiition.  —  It  is  raised  from  seed,  and  in  its  third  year  is  ingrafted  with 
branches  from  pistillate  trees ;  and  in  the  orchards  a  few  staminate  trees  are 
planted  to  fertilize  the  others. 


Ori>ek  XLVII.    LAURACE-aJ. 

Flowers  perfect  or  declinous,  regular,  small,  white  or  yellow,  fra- 
grant; perianth  simple;  calyx  with  united  sepals,  6-Iobefl,  herbaceous 
or  petaloid,  fleNhy,  usually  inferior,  rotate  or  urn-shaped;  stamens,  at 
the  base  or  throat  of  calyx  about  9  in  number,  3  inner  ones  extrorse ; 
filaments  free  or  rarely  monadelphous ;  anthers  opening  by  uplifted 
valves ;  ovary  free,  1-celled ;  style  simple,  stout,  short ;  stigma  obtuse, 
discoid,  2-3-lobed.  Fruit,  a  berry,  globose  or  ellipsoid.  Leaves 
alternate,  near  each  other,  sometimes  nearly  opposite  or  whorled,  ex- 
stipulate.     Aromatic  trees  or  shrubs. 

Xo.  of  principal  genera,  about  34  ;  species,  900 ;  mostly  tropical. 

CINNAMOMUM.  B.    Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous,  receptacle  funnel- 
form  ;  perianth  in  6  parts,  with  12  stamens,  9  fertile  and  3  sterile. 
Fruit,  a  berry,  attached  to  the  base  of  the  re- 
ceptacle ;    pericarp   thin.      Flowers   in  panicles, 
axillary  or  terminal,  simple  or  in  3-  to  many- 
flowered  cymes.     Tree. 

1 .  C.  camphora,  Nees.  (Camphor  Tree.)  Stem  30 
to  80  feet  high,  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter  ;  branches 
spreading  horizontally,  forming  a  symmetrical  head  ; 
bark  green,  and  on  the  young  branches  shining.  Leaf- 
buds  conical,  glabrous,  protected  by  stiff  .scales ;  leaves 
numerous,  alternate,  3  to  6  inches  long,  on  s^lender 
petioles,  slender  at  each  end,  acuminate,  entire,  smooth, 
bright  green,  shining  above  and  glaucous  underneath, 
thick,  stiff,  and  evergreen.  Flowers  small,  on  slender, 
spreading  pedicels,  forming  small,  spreading  cymes. 
2  to  3  in  a  long-stalked,  axillary  panicle,  shorter  than 
the  leaves  ;  perianth  canipanulato,  smooth  outside. 
very  hairy  within,  greenish-white  ;  ovary  free,  1-cellod. 
1-ovuled  ;  style  i«leiidor,  as  long  as  the  stamens  ;  stigma 
small ;  seed  egg-shaped,  as  large  as  a  medium-sized 

pea,  purplish,  surrounded  at  the  base  by  the  enlarged  tube  of  the  persistent 
perianth  ;  seed  siditary.  Flowers  in  July.  This  tree  sometimes  attains  a 
very  large  diameter ;  it  is  reported  that  one  in  Japan  has  reached  a  circum- 


ClNNAMOMUM    CAMPHORA 

(C.iinphor-tree). 


218  DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 

ference  of  50  feet.     There  are  about  50  species  of  this  genus,  but  they  do 
not  all  yield  camphor. 

Geographif.  —  The  camphor-tree  is  found  native  in  the  edge  and  fringes  of 
the  tropic  of  Cancer.  It  is  found  in  China,  Japan,  Borneo,  and  the  island  of 
Formosa.  It  also  grows  in  regions  of  light  frost,  having  been  planted  in 
southern  Europe  and  in  California. 

Etymology.  —  Cinnamomuin  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  word  kinamon,  cinna- 
mon. Camphora  is  of  Eastern  origin ;  the  signification  is  obscure,  but  it  is 
supposed  to  mean  "  white,"  in  allusion  to  the  color  of  the  gum. 

History.  —  Camphor  is  a  concrete  volatile  oil,  obtained  by  distilling  the 
wood  with  water.  It  yields  to  the  chemist  CioHigO,  melts  at  347°  Fahren- 
heit, and  boils  at  400°  ;  it  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  slightly  so  in  water.  It 
is  purified  by  sublimation. 

Camphor  was  not  known  to  the  ancients,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  was  car- 
ried into  Europe  by  the  Arabs  in  the  sixth  century,  and  by  them  introduced 
into  the  materia  medica.  The  camphor  of  commerce  is  exported  from  the 
island  of  Formosa  and  Japan. 

Preparation.  —  The  mode  of  procuring  camphor  is  to  cut  down  the  tree  and 
reduce  the  trunk  to  fragments,  and  place  the  chips  in  a  large  still,  the  head 
of  which  is  filled  with  rice-straw,  the  bottom  of  the  still  being  filled  with 
water.  In  the  vaporization  the  camphor  passes  to  the  liead  of  the  still  and 
crystallizes  on  the  straw  ;  it  is  picked  from  the  straw,  placed  in  packages,  and 
sent  to  market.  It  is  afterwards  purified  by  sublimation  in  glass  flasks,  when 
the  impurities  are  left  at  the  bottom.  In  America  the  process  is  somewhat 
different.  The  gum  is  condensed  in  flat  iron  pans  about  sixteen  inches  square 
and  one  inch  deep. 

Use.  —  Camphor  oil,  obtained  by  draining  the  crystals  in  large  vats  before 
removing  them  from  the  straw  and  sticks  that  are  taken  from  the  heads  of 
the  stills,  is  used  for  medicine  by  the  natives  of  Formosa. 

The  medicinal  properties  of  the  gum  are  stimulant,  diaphoretic,  anodyne, 
and  narcotic.  It  is  used  to  quiet  restlessness,  as  a  carminative,  and  a  remedy 
in  typhoid  ailments. 

It  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  in  oil,  and  used  as  a  liniment,  and  is  an  im- 
portant medicine  in  domestic  practice.  It  is  poisonous  and  very  inflammable. 
It  is  an  insecticide,  and  used  to  preserve  woollen  and  fur  goods  from  the  rav- 
ages of  moths ;  also  in  herbariums,  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  dried  plants 
by  insects. 

Note.  —  The  Blumea  balsamifera,  an  herbaceous  plant  of  the  order  Com- 
positae,  found  in  China,  yields  to  distillation  a  camphor  which  is  heavier 
than  water,  and  more  volatile  than  the  ordinary  camphor  of  commerce ;  it  is 
used  by  the  Chinese  in  medicine  and  to  perfume  the  celebrated  India  ink. 

The  Borneo  camphor  is  obtained  from  Dryobalanops  Camphora,  Colebr. 
This  tree  is  a  most  magnificent  object.  The  trunk  rises  to  the  heiglit  of  130 
feet  without  a  branch,  the  base  is  fortified  Avith  gigantic  buttresses,  and  the 
top  crowned  with  a  cluster  of  branches  clothed  with  large,  shining  leaves. 
Flowers  showy,  abundant,  and  fragrant.  The  camplior  is  obtained  by  felling 
the  tree,  cutting  it  into  lengths,  and  then  splitting  it  up,  when  tlie  gum  is 
exposed  in  layers  in  the  wood,  from  which  it  is  detached  by  means  of  a  sharp- 
ened stick.  The  camphor  is  so  pure  as  to  need  no  process  of  refining,  and  is 
the  precious  camphor  of  the  East,  used  in  religious  ceremonies  and  funeral 
rites. 


LAURACE^. 


219 


2.  C.  zeylanicum,  Breyn.  (C'iiinanion.)  Sec-oncl-dass  tree ;  truuk  20  to  30 
feet  liigli,  funiiiug  a  low,  broad  head;  bark  brown.  Leaves  opposite,  oval,  4 
to  5  iuclies  long,  rounded  at  the  base,  (hirk-green  above,  paler  beneath,  promi- 
nently 3-uerved.  Flowers  in  large  terminal  panicles;  flowers  distant  and 
bractless  ;  petals  inconspicuous  ;  j)erianth  divided  into  6  oblong,  rather  l)lunt, 
equal  lobes,  imbricated  in  2  rows,  9  stamens  and  3  stamiuoids;  anthers  short; 
tilaments  hairy;  ovary  superior,  1 -celled,  with  1  ovule;  style  shorter  than  the 
stamens  ;  stigma  2-lobed.  Fruit  ovoid,  Heshy,  half  an  incli  long,  smooth  ; 
seeds  not  filling  the  seed-vessel. 

As  this  tree  is  propagated  from  seed,  it  sports  freely,  and  many  varieties 
are  produced,  but  all  constant  as  to  quality  of  bark. 

Geography.  —  The  Cinnamonmm  zeylanicum  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical 
tree,  requiring  a  mean  temperature,  not  below  70°.  It  grows  throughout  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago.  It  was  formerly 
largely  cultivated  in  Ceylon,  but  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tea  and  coffee  are  rapidly  supplanting 
it.  It  has  been  taken  to  the  West  Indies, 
South  America,  and  the  isles  of  the  Pacific. 

Etymuloyij  and  History.  —  Zeylanicum  is  the 
Latijiized  form  of  Ceylon.  When  cinnamon 
was  first  introduced  into  use  as  a  spice  or  a 
medicine  is  not  known  ;  it  is  spoken  of  in  the 
Bible  as  one  of  the  sulistances  of  the  anointing 
oil  used  in  the  installation  of  the  priesthood  ; 
it  was  known  in  England  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, and  has  always  been  a  favorite  spice. 
When  the  Dutch  came  into  possession  of  Cey- 
lon, they  limited  tlie  supply  to  sustain  the 
price,  and  the  English  did  the  same.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  the  oil  of  cinna- 
mon sold  in  London  for  its  weight  in  gold. 

Cultivation.  —  The  Dutch  l)egan  the  cultiva- 
tion in  Ceylon.  Tlie  plants  are  cut  back  to 
about  six  l)uds;  from  these  the  shoots  are 
allowed  to  grow  to  the  height  of  ten  feet,  at 

which  time  they  will  liave  reached  a  diameter  of  about  an  incli  or  more;  these 
are  cut  at  the  time  tlie  sap  begins  to  flow,  and  divided  into  lengths  a  foot 
long,  which  are  split  in  halves,  and  tlie  l)ark  removed.  The  pieces  are  laid 
one  inside  the  other  and  tied  together  in  small  bundles,  whicli  are  left  a  few 
days  to  dry ;  tlie  strips  are  then  laid  upon  a  rounded  stick,  and  the  cuticle 
scraped  off.  The  pieces  are  then  alloweil  to  dry  and  curl  up ;  when  dry.  tlie 
smaller  are  inserted  into  the  larger,  and  in  that  way  made  into  a  sort  of' solid 
to  prevent  breaking.  These  are  tied  together  into  l)uiidles  weighing  about 
thirty  pounds  each,  covered  with  gunny  cloth,  and  sent  to  market. 

^^^c-  — 'riie  chips  and  peah'd  sticks,  with  the  bark  upon  the  twigs,  are  dis- 
tilled, and  yield  the  oil  of  cinnamon  ;  the  leaf  also  yicMs  an  (.il.  "The  root 
yields  a  peculiar  camplior. 

Cinnamon  is  used  as  a  spice  in  confectionery,  .akes.  and  pastry,  cordials  and 
prepared  liqueurs,  and  jjerfumery.  In  medicine  it  is  stimulant,  aromatic,  car- 
minative, and  a  remedy  for  nausea. 

3.  C.  cassia,  lil.  Stem  20  to  30  feet  in  height,  symmetrically  brancbeO 
Leaves  like  those  of  C.  zeylanicum,  but    more  obtuse  .    when  young,  tiame 


CiNNAMOMUM    ZEYLANICUM 

(Cinnamon). 


220  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

colored.    This  tree,  when  clothed  with  its  flame-colored  leaves,  interspersed 
with  pure  white  flowers,  is  an  object  of  enchanting  beauty. 

Besides  the  C.  cassia,  there  are  three  other  well-marked  species,  as 
follows  :  — 

4.  C.  obtusifolium,  Nees,  with  very  blunt  leaves. 

5.  C.  pauciflorum,  Nees,  few-flowered. 

6.  C.  iners,  Reinw.,  feeble-wooded. 

These  all  produce  bark  resembling  the  Cinnamomum  zeylanimm,  but  less 
pungent  and  delicate.  The  bark  of  the  cassia  is  sold  in  the  American  market 
for  cinnamon  ;  very  little  true  cinnamon  reaches  the  United  States.  It  is 
easily  distinguished  by  the  druggist  and  dealer.  The  taste  and  flavor  are 
higher,  and  the  bark  is  not  thicker  than  good  writing-paper.  The  barks  of 
the  shops  of  America  are  cassia,  and  not  the  true  cinnamon,  and  the  oils  are 
likewise  mostly  cassia  oils. 

Geography.  —  The  cinnamon-producing  cassia  trees  are  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical. Found  in  southern  India,  Java,  Sumatra  and  Ceylon,  eastern  Africa, 
and  Australia. 

Etymologij.  —  Cassia  is  the  Latinized  Hebrew  Avord,  ketzioth  ;  and  gatsa,  to 
cut,  is  also  given  as  the  root  of  this  word,  alluding  to  the  mode  of  obtaining 
or  harvesting  the  bark,  i.  e.,  a  bark  which  is  cut. 

Cultivation.  —  The  modes  of  growing  the  tree  and  harvesting  the  bark  are 
precisely  like  tliose  for  the  true  cinnamon.  Cassia  buds  of  commerce  are  the 
unripe  fruit  of  the  C  cassia  and  other  species. 

Use.  —  The  properties  of  cassia  products  are  about  the  same  as  those  of  true 
cinnamon,  only  less  intense.  The  cassia  buds  are  used  in  confections,  and  to 
flavor  bitters  and  cordials.  The  bark  is  used  in  all  cases  the  same  as  cinna- 
mon ;  most  consumers  do  not  know  what  the  true  bark  is. 

Order  XL VIII.    SANTALACE-^. 

Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous,  white,  green,  yellow,  or  red,  lateral 
or  terminal ;  perianth  single,  tubular,  variously  5-3-lobed,  valvate  in/ 
the  bud  ;  stamens  equal  and  opposite  to  the  perianth  lobes,  inserted  on 
their  middle  ;  filaments  short ;  ovary  inferior,  1-celled,  mostly  3-ovuled. 
Leaves  opposite  or  alternate,  entire,  narrow,  usually  sessile.  Trees, 
shrubs,  or  herbs. 

No.  of  genera,  28 ;  species,  220 ;  tropical  and  temperate  regions. 

SANTALUM,  L.  (Sandal-wood  Tree.)  Perianth  bell-shaped,  4- 
5-parted  ;  lobes  spreading ;  petals  4,  spreading ;  stamens  4 ;  filaments 
thread-like  ;  anthers  ovoid ;  style  conical  or  cylindrical ;  stigmas  2  to  4  ; 
drupe  globose,  truncate,  or  crowned.     Leaves  alternate.     Trees. 

1.  S.  album,  L.  Trunk  20  to  30  feet  high,  branches  numerous,  opposite, 
drooping ;  bark  smooth,  grayish-brown ;  twigs  glabrous.  Leaves  without 
stipules ;  petioles  slender,  half  an  inch  long ;  blade  I  to  3  inches  long,  oval  or 
lanceolate,  tapering  at  the  base,  sharp  or  blunt  at  the  extremity,  entire, 
smooth  both  sides,  glaucous  underneath.  Flowers  small,  numerous,  short- 
.stalked,  in  small  pyramidal,  erect,  terminal,  and  axillary  3-forked,  panicle- 
shaped  cymes,  without  odor ;    bracts  small ;    perianth    bell-shaped,   smooth. 


SANTALACE.E.  221 

short ;  segineuts  4,  triani^ular,  sharp,  spreadiug,  fleshy,  straw  colored,  chaugiug 
to  purple  ;  stameus  4,  opposite  the  segments  of  the  perianth ;  filaments  sliort, 
inserted  on  tlie  mouth  of  tlie  perianth,  alternating  with  the  erect  lobes; 
anthers  short,  2-celled ;  style  tliread-like ;  stigma  small,  .'i-4-lobed,  on  a  level 
with  the  antliers.  Fruit  tlie  size  of  a  pea,  bearing  a  sort  of  crown,  which  is 
the  remains  of  the  perianth,  nearly  black,  nut  hard  and  bony,  with  3  ridges 
extending  lialf  way  down  from  tlie  top. 

There  are. eight  species,  tliree  of  which,  besides  tlie  S.  album,  yield  an  oil 
and  perfume,  but  of  an  inferior  quality  to  that  of  the  S.  album. 

2.  S.  myrtifolium,  East  Indies. 

3.  S.  yasi,  Fiji  Islands. 

4.  S.  Freycinetianum,  Sandwich  Islands, 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  is  tropical  and  subtropical,  in  Asia, 
Malaysia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Farther  India  and  China  pro- 
duce most  of  the  w^ood  that  reaches  England  and  America. 

Etymology.  —  Santalum,  the  generic   name,   is  the  Latinized  form  of  the 
Persian  name,  said  to  come  from  the  Sanskrit  chandana,  sandal,  the  tree. 
The  word   chand   signifies   "shine,"  hence  the  shining 
tree.     Album,  the  specific  name,  is  the  Latin  for  white. 
iSandal-ivood,  the  popular  name,  signifies  "shining  wood," 
due  to  the  light  color  of  the  sap-wood. 

History. — This  tree  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  is  highly  prized  ou  account  of  its  fragrance.  The 
use  of  sandal-wood  dates  as  far  back  at  least  as  the  fifth 
century  b.  c,  for  the  wood  is  mentioned  under  its  San- 
skrit name  "chandana"  in  the  Nlrukta,  the  earliest 
extant  Vedic  commentary.  It  is  still  extensively  used 
in  India  and  China,  wherever  Buddhism  prevails,  being  Santalum  Ai-Briw 
employed  in  funeral  rites  and  religious  ceremonies ;  (Sandal-wood  Tree), 
comparatively  poor  people  often  spend  as  much  as  fiftv 

rupees  on  sandal-wood  for  a  single  cremation.  Until  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  India  was  the  only  source  of  sandal-wood.  When  it  became 
known  to  the  western  or  European  nations  we  have  no  means  of  knowing; 
mo.'^t  likely  the  wood  was  introduced  into  commerce  very  early,  increasing 
as  the  means  of  conveyance  improved.  The  discovery  of  sandalwood  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  led  to  a  considerable  trade  of  a  somewhat  piratical 
nature,  resulting  in  difficulties  with  the  natives,  often  ending  in  bloodshed, 
the  celebrated  missionary  John  Williams,  amongst  others,  having  fallen  a 
victim  to  an  indiscriminate  retaliation  l)y  the  natives  on  white  men  visiting 
the  islands.  The  loss  of  life  in  this  trade  was  at  one  time  even  greater  than 
in  that  of  whaling,  with  which  it  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  adventurous 
of  callings  About  the  year  1810  as  much  as  four  hundred  thon.sind  dollars 
is  said  to  have  boon  received  annually  for  .>^andal-wood  by  Kaniehameha,  King 
of  Hawaii.  The  trees  con.se(|iiently  have  become  almost  extinct  in  all  the  well- 
known  islands,  except  New  Caledonia,  where  the  wood  is  now  cultivated. 

/^reparation.  —  The  tree  is  projiagated  by  seeds,  which  must  be  placed 
wh(;re  they  are  intended  to  grow,  since  the  seedlings  will  not  bear  trans- 
jdantation,  ])robably  on  account  of  deriving  their  nourishment  parasiti- 
cally  by  means  of  tuberous  swellings  attached  to  the  roots  of  other  i>lants 
The  trees  are  cut  down  when  between  eighteen  and  twenty-five  years  old, 
when   thev    have  attained  their  maturitv,  the  trunks    l)eing  about  one  foot 


222  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

in  diameter.  The  felling  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  trunk 
is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  for  several  months,  during  which  time 
the  white  ants  eat  away  the  valueless  sap  wood  but  leave  the  fragrant  heart- 
wood  untouched.  The  heart-wood  is  then  sawn  into  lengths  two  to  four  feet 
long.  These  are  afterwards  more  carefully^  trimmed  at  the  forest  depots,  and 
left  to  dry  slowly  in  a  close  warehouse  for  some  weeks,  by  wliich  the  odor 
is  improved,  and  the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  split  obviated.  An  annual 
auction  of  the  wood  takes  place,  at  which  merchants  from  all  parts  of  India 
congregate.  The  largest  pieces  are  chiefly^  exported  to  China,  the  small 
pieces  to  Arabia ;  and  those  of  medium  size  are  retained  for  use  in  India. 

Use.  —  The  fragrance  resides  in  the  heart-wood  and  the  root.  The  heart- 
wood  also  is  valuable  in  the  arts,  the  sap-wood  being  too  soft  for  the  construc- 
tion of  furniture.  Sandal-wood  is  hard,  close-grained,  takes  a  fine  polish,  and 
is  employed  for  making  musical  instruments,  toilet-boxes,  fans,  and  fancy 
articles  ;  drawers  and  boxes  for  preserving  furs,  silks,  and  woollens  from  the 
depredations  of  insects  are  also  constructed  from  it,  and  it  is  largely  used  by 
engravers,  for  whose  purposes  it  excels  the  famous  box-Avood.  It  is  also  used  by 
the  Chinese  and  other  Asiatic  pagans  as  a  perfume  to  burn  before  their  idols. 

Oil  of  sandal-wood  is  obtained  from  the  chips,  sawdust,  and  raspings  of  the 
wood,  by  slow  distillation.  The  oil  is  employed  for  adulterating  the  attar  of 
roses,  and  for  compounding  medicines.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  the  favorite 
handkerchief  extracts,  colognes,  and  fancy  soaps  of  the  shops.  The  seed  of 
the  sandal-wood  yields  a  fatty  oil  by  decoction,  used  for  illuminating  purposes. 

Order  XLIX.     EUPHORBIACE^.     (Spurge  Family.) 

Plants  of  various  habits,  generally  with  milky  juice.  Leaves  mostly 
alternate,  stipulate,  and  often  undivided;  inflorescence  usually  com- 
pound, sometimes  with  a  calyx-like  involucre  inclosing  several  reduced 
declinous  flowers ;  perianth  single,  of  united  sepals,  or  none,  or  double 
(when  double  it  consists  mostly  of  small,  distinct  petals) ;  stamens 
1-1,000 ;  ovary  superior,  usually  3-celled  (rarely  2-many-celled)  ; 
cells  1-2-ovuled ;  ovules  pendulous  from  the  inner  angle,  anatropous. 
Fruit  capsular,  separating  from  the  axis  into  cocci  (sometimes  a 
drupe)  ;  embryo  in  axis  ;  fleshy  or  oily  endosperm  ;  radicle  superior. 

No.  of  genera,  195  ;  species,  3,000.  Habitat,  tropical  and  temperate 
zones. 

ETJPHOKBIA,  L.  (Spurge.)  Flowers  monoecious,  without  floral 
enveloj)es,  several  in  a  cluster,  inclosed  in  a  calyx-like  involucre,  with 
4  to  5  lobes,  frequently  with  4  to  5  glands ;  staminate  flowers,  9  or 
more  in  a  cluster,  each  with  1  stamen  and  bract ;  pistillate  flower 
central,  with  a  3-celled,  3-ovuled  ovary  on  a  long  pedicel ;  styles  3  in 
number,  bifid  ;  capsules  3-lobed,  with  3  seeds  or  nuts.     Juice  milky. 

E.  Ipecacuanhse,  L,  Stems  usually  short  and  in  clusters,  slender,  and  dif- 
fusely, bifurcately  branched.  Leaves  opposite,  oblong,  linear-lobed,  or  slit, 
variable,  sessile,  heads  on  thread-like  pedicels  ;  seed  white,  compressed,  pitted ; 
root  very  large,  forked,  and  perennial.     Sands  of  Xew  Jersey  and  south. 

Etymology.  — Euphorbia  is  named  in  honor  of  Euphorbus,  physician  to  King 
Juba  of  Mauritania.  Ipecacuanha  is  from  the  Brazilian  ipecaagnen,  road-side 
sick-making  plant.     Spurge  is  from  the  Latin  expuryare,  cleanse. 


EUPH0KBIA('K7l<:.  228 

f/se.  —  The  K  Ipecacuanhiv  is  seldom  used  cuinmercially.  'i'rue  ipecaeu- 
auha  is  olttaiiied  I  it 'in  Cephaelis  (see  Cephaelis  of  Kubiacea-,  p.  1«)2). 

H£V£A,  Aul).  Calyx  .Vtoothed,  valvate ;  petals  wanting;  stamens 
5  to  10,  united,  forming  a  tube;  anthers  extrorse ;  styles  'i  in  number, 
short  and  emarginatc;  inflorescence  a  raceme,  made  up  of  a  number 
of  few-flowered  cymes  ;  pistillate  flowers  above,  and  the  staminate  ones 
below  ;  ovary  ovoid,  8-celled  ;  capsule  large  ;  exocarp  somewhat  fleshy, 
endocarp  slightly  woody ;  seeds  large,  oblong,  smooth  ;  testa  dry  and 
brittle.     Large  trees,  with  3»foliate  leaves. 

H.  Braziliensis,  Mill.  (Caoutchouc.)  Trunk  50  to  60  feet  high  ;  bark  rough, 
grayish-l)rowii ;  branchiug uear  the  top;  branches  and  branclilets  covered  with 
a  rough  bark,  the  brauchlets  disfigured  with  tumors  or  swellings.  Leaves  on 
long  petioles,  branching  at  the  end  into  three  parts,  each  division  terminated 
with  a  fleshy  evergreen  obovate-acuminate  leaflet,  dark-green  above  and  light 
beneath  ;  seeds  oval  and  spotted. 

There  are  18  genera  and  44  species  of 
plants  from  which  the  gum  elastic  of 
commerce  is  obtained,  mostly  large  trees. 
The  most  important  of  those  that  yield 
the  largest  quantity  of  the  best  quality 
are,  first,  the  Hevea  Braziliensis,  order 
Euphorbiaceae ;  Ficus  elastica,  order  Urti- 
caceae  ;  and  Castilloa  elastica,  order 
Urticaceoe. 

At  the  exposition  at  Philadelphia 
in  1876,  a  gum  was  exhibited  procured 
from  an  undescribed  plant  of  the  Com- 
positee,  found  in  Durango,  Mexico. 

Geography. — The  hevea  is  a  native  of 
the  region  of  South  America  drained  by         Euphorbia  Ipecacuanh.«  (Spurge), 
the   Amazon  and    its   tributaries.      The 

Jiciis  is  distributed  over  southern  Asia,  middle  Africa,  and  northern  Australia. 
These,  as  well  as  the  other  trees  and  vines  tliat  yield  the  gum-elastic,  are 
tropical  or  .strictly  subtropical  plants.  The  castilloas  are  found  on  the  Pacific 
slope  in  northern  South  America,  and  extend  into  rentral  America.  Castilloa 
elastica  was  sent  from  America  in  1875  to  Kew  Gardens,  England,  and  thence 
to  India,  and  in  1876  Hevea  Braziliensis  reached  India  by  the  same  route, 
and  is  thriving  there  and  upon  the  i.sland  of  Ceylon. 

Eti/mologi/. — The  meaning  of  hevea  is  obscure.  Braziliensis,  the  specific 
name,  denotes  the  country  where  it  is  indigenous  ;  elastica  is  from  the  Latin 
elasticiis,  elastic  or  pliable.  The  name  India  rubber  has  been  applied  to  this 
substance  l)ecause  early  in  its  history  it  was  used  to  erase  or  ntb  out  pencil 
marks,  an<l  as  it  was  l)rouglit  from  the  West  Indies  it  was  called  India  rubber. 
Gum  elastic,  anotlier  popular  name,  means  "pliable  gum."  Caoutrhour  is  the 
native  South  American  name. 

Historij.  —  In  149.3  tlie  Spaniards,  on  the  second  voyage  of  Columbus,  saw 
the  natives  of  Haiti  amusing  themselves  witli  ela.stic  balls  wliieh  they  threw 
and  caught.  More  than  a  century  after  that  (in  1615)  Torquemada  published 
an  account  of  the  New  World  and  its  ])ro(Uuts.  in  whicli  he  says  the  natives 
smear  the  juice  of  a  tree  over  their  bodies,  and  when  it  coagulates,  they  scrape 


224 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


it  off  and  knead  it  into  masses,  and  work  it  into  vessels  to  hold  water  and 
other  substances.  More  than  a  century  after  the  appearance  of  Torquemada's 
work,  a  scientific  description  was  read  before  the  French  Academy  by  La 
Condamine,  and  was  published  in  the  transactions  of  the  .Vcademy.  (Jublet,  in 
1755,  described  the  hevea  botanically. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  usefulness  of  the  gum  had  not 
been  developed ;  in  its  native  state  it  was  soft  and  sticky  in  a  high  tempera- 
ture, hard  and  inelastic  wlien  exposed  to  the  cold,  and  hence  of  very  little 
practical  value.  In  1842,  three  liundred  and  fifty  years  after  it  was  first  seen 
by  Europeans,  experiments  showed'lt  to  possess  the  power  of  uniting  with  sul- 
pliur.  When  thus  combined,  it  is  said  to  be  \Tilcanized  ;  it  is  not  affected  by 
temperature,  and  resists  solvents.  At  the  will  of  the  manufacturer  it  may  be 
made  very  pliable  and  more  elastic  than  in  its  natural  state,  or  very  hard. 

Preparation. — The  mode  of- harvesting  this  remarkable  substance  is  to 
wound  the  tree  by  piercing  the  bark  to  the  down-flowing  sap,  which  is  a 

yellowish-white,  milky  fluid.  This,  as  it 
flows  out,  is  caught  in  vessels  of  clay  or 
bamboo,  and  carried  to  the  camp,  where 
it  is  smeared  over  an  instrument  resem- 
bling a  wooden  shovel,  and  held  over  a 
smoky  fire.  When  the  first  smearing  is 
coagulated  or  hardened,  another  coat  is 
put  on,  and  the  process  is  repeated  until 
the  successive  layers  have  produced  a  coat- 
ing of  eight  inches  or  more  in  thickness, 
when  it  is  slit  down  the  side,  slipped  off, 
and  hung  up  to  dry  and  harden.  It  at 
first  presents  a  silver-gray  color,  soon 
changing  to  yelloAv,  and  finally  to  a  dingy 
black,  as  seen  in  commerce.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  vinegar  of  wood,  or 
pyroligneous  acid  of  the  smoky  fire,  plays 
an  important  part  in  its  coagulation,  as 
the  gum  prepared  in  this  manner  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  any  other  preparation . 
The  South  American  gum  was  formerly 
hardened  upon  clay  moulds  in  form  of  bottles  and  lasts,  and  when  in  a  proper 
state  the  clay  was  picked  out. 

In  India  the  mode  of  collecting  the  sap  destroyed  the  trees.  The  govern- 
ment has  taken  it  in  hand,  and  formed  plantations,  and  less  destructive  modes 
of  harvesting  are  now  practiced. 

Use.  —  The  uses  to  which  India  rubber  has  been  applied  since  the  vulcan- 
izing process  has  been  put  into  practice  are  so  numerous  that  only  a  few  can 
be  mentioned  here  ;  in  fact  it  would  be  difficult  to  enumerate  all  the  uses  to 
which  gum  elastic  has  been  put.  It  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  every  sort 
of  waterproof  clothing  used  for  man  or  beast.  The  messenger  boy  encases 
himself  in  India  rubber,  and  defies  the  pelting  storm.  The  soldier  in  the 
camp  spreads  down  his  rubber  blanket,  and  the  cavalryman  on  the  march,  in 
a  storm,  protects  himself  and  his  horse  by  a  covering  of  gum  elastic  cloth. 
It  is  manufactured  into  toys  for  the  infant,  bands  for  holding  papers  and 
packages  together,  boots,  shoes,  hats,  beds  and  cushions,  life-belts,  garden- 
hose,  door-springs,  roller-skates,  bumpers  for  railroad  cars,  etc. 


Hevea  Braziliensis  (Caoutchouc). 


EUPHORBIACE^.. 


225 


BUXUS,  r..  Flowers  moiKecious ;  ciilyx  of  tlie  staniiiiate  flowers 
3-sepaled  ;  corolla  2-petaled ;  stamens  1;  pistillate  flowers  with  4 
sepals,  3  petals,  and  3  pistils ;  seed-vessels  surmounted  by  3  beaks, 
3-celled,  2  seeds  in  a  cell.     Shrubs  and  small  trees.     Evergreen. 


B.  sempervirens,  L.  (Box.  Box-tree.)  Stem  from  10  to  30  feet  iu  height, 
and  from  .'i  to  8  iiuhes  in  diameter,  with  deii.sely  crowded  branches.  Leaves 
oval,  about  half  an  incli  in  length,  (Uirk-green,  glossy;  tiie  tiowers  in  axillary 
clusters,  male  and  female  tiowers  on  the  same  plant,  greenish  and  incon- 
spicuous.    April. 

Var.  angustifolia,  W.,  is  the  same  as  tlie  above,  except  that  it  has  narrow- 
leaves. 

Var.  suffruticosa,  W.,  is  a  dwarf  variety,  aud  is  used  for  borders  iu  the 
garden  aud  parterre. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  is  not 
great.  It  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe, 
western  Asia,  and  especially  the  countries  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  Syria,  Persia,  and  the 
regions  south  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Etymology. —  Buxus  and  box  are  from  the 
Greek  7ru|os,  box-tree,  aud  our  word  box  comes 
from  the  same  source,  because  boxes  were 
made  of  the  wood  of  this  tree.  Sempervirens, 
the  specific  name,  is  due  to  its  evergreen 
foliage.  Angustifolia  is  from  the  Latin  angus- 
ius,  narrow,  and  folium,  leaf.  Suffruticosa  is 
from  the  l^atiu,  fruticosa,  bushy. 

History.  —  The  box  was  known  to  and  used 
by  the  ancients.  The  wood  was  used  by  them 
to  make  combs  and  musical  wind-instruments, 
and  the  Romans  used  it  to  ornament  their 
planted  grounds ;  and  as  it  bears  the  knife 
well,  they  clipped  it  into  various  shapes,  mak- 
ing it  represent  lions  and  other  wild  beasts 

among  their  shrubbery.  It  was  I)rouQ;ht  by  colonists  to  North  America,  and 
is  found  in  planted  o;rounds  throuiiliout  the  middle  States  and  Virginia;  it  is 
not  hardy  north  of  41°  nortli  latitude. 

Use,  — The  dwarf  form  is  used  for  ornamental  purposes  in  planted  grounds, 
and  as  borderings  for  gardens.  The  wood  of  the  box-tree  is  used  l)y  turners 
and  musical-instrument  makers,  al.so  for  mathematical  in.struments,  scales, 
rulers,  slieaves,  pestles,  .screws,  inlaying  for  tables  and  otlier  cabinet  ware,  and 
especially  for  wood-engraving,  f<ti-  which  ]tnr])usc,  <ui  acct)unt  of  its  close  grain, 
it  is  invaluable. 

It  also  enters  into  the  materia  medica.  An  extract  is  pre.scril)ed  for  inter- 
mittent fevers  and  for  kidney  complaints.  Its  seeds  are  purgative,  and  all 
parts  of  the  plant  are  poi.siuious,  especially  the  leaves.  It  is  said  that  in 
those  parts  of  Persia  where  it  grows,  camels  cannot  be  kept,  as  they  are  sure 
to  feed  upon  it  and  poii^on  them.selves. 

yfarts.  —  The  supply  of  the  wood  of  the  box  comes  from  Smyrn:i,  Constan- 
tinople, and  the  i.<lands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.     It  is  sold  i»y  wcighi. 
England  imports  al)out  80,000  pounds  annnallx . 
Pr.  Fl.— 16 


Buxus  SEMPER^^RE^•s  (Box). 


226 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


CROTON,  L.  Flowers  monoecious ;  calyx  of  the  staminate  flowers 
4;-5-parted,  cylindric,  and  valvate  in  the  bud;  corolla,  with  petals  cor-, 
responding  to  the  division  of  the  calyx,  small ;  stamens  5  to  20 ;  calyx 
of  the  pistillate  flower  5-,  sometimes  8-parted ;  corolla  minute,  some- 
times wanting;  styles  3-forked,  sometimes  compound-forked;  seed- 
vessel  3-lobed,  with  3  cells;  cells  1-seeded.  Plant  downy  and 
aromatic. 


C.  tiglium,  L.     (Croton-oil   Plant.) 
Leaves   alternate,  acuminate,  serrate. 


Stem  15  to  20  feet  in  height,  erect. 

smooth,  with  2  glands  at  the  base ; 
petioles  shorter  than  the 
blade.  Flowers  in  terminal 
racemes.  Fruit  3-celled  ; 
cells  1-seeded. 

There  are  about  500 
species. 

Geography.  —  The  C.  ti- 
glium has  a  narrow  geo- 
graphical range ;  it  is  tropi- 
cal and  subtropical.  It  is 
under  cultivation  in  south- 
ern Hindustan  and  the  East 
India  islands. 

Etymology.  —  Croton  is 
from  the  Greek  word  Kponiv, 
a  tick,  —  because  the  seed 
in  shape  resembles  the 
sheep-tick.  Tiglium,  the 
specific  name,  is  of  obscure 
signification. 

History.  —  The     Croton 
tiglium    was    described    by 
Acosta  in  1 578,  and  the  seeds 
came  in  use  as  a  purgative 
medicine  under  the  name  of 
grana    tiglii    in  the   seven- 
teenth century,  but  fell  into 
disuse.     In  1812  the   Enghsh  physicians  in   India  revived   its  use,  and  a 
few  years  afterwards  the  expressed  oil  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  medical 
men. 

Chemistry.  —  The  oil  is  about  the  consistency  of  castor  oil,^  and  is  ob- 
tained from  the  seeds  by  pressure.  Chemists  have  thus  far  failed  to  obtain 
the  substance  which  gives  efficacy  to  the  oil.  Its  chemical  formula  is 
C9H14O2. 

Use.  —  Croton  oil  is  used  sparingly,  and  administered  with  great  caution  in 
very  small  doses  as  a  purgative  after  other  remedies  have  proved  ineffective. 
One  drop  mixed  with  olive  or  some  other  sweet  oil  is  a  full  dose;  a  drop 
placed  upon  the  tongue  produces  irritation  throughout  the  entire  intestinal 
canal ;  a  few  drops  mixed  with  olive  oil  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  body 
cause  an  almost  immediate  eruption  of  the  cuticle.  It  is  used  for  a  counter- 
irritant. 


Croton  tiglium  (Croton-oil). 


EUPHORBIACEiE. 


221 


MANIHOT,  riuiu.  Flowers  mona'cious  and  apetalous  ;  calyx  of  the 
stauiiiiate  flowers  5-parted  and  imbricated;  stamens  10,  in  two  series: 
filaments  free,  slender  ;  anthers  attached  by  their  backs  to  the  fila- 
ments; cells  along  the  sides  covered  with  cracks,  running  lengthwise 
calyx  of  the  pistillate  flowers  o-parted,  deciduous;  receptacle  below 
the  base  of  the  ovary  sometimes  furnished  with  stamen-like  processes ; 
style  3-lobed  ;  ovary  :5-valved,  8-celled  ;  ovules  1  in  each  cell.  Fruit  in 
a  capsule,  5-berried;  berries  2-valved  ;  seeds  smooth.  Leaves  alter- 
nate, digitate;  stipules  small,  deciduous;  inflorescence  a  branched 
raceme,  terminal  or  axillary.  Fertile  flowers  occupy  the  lower  i)art  of 
the  raceme.     Root  fusiform  and  fleshy. 

M.  utilissima,  rolil.  (Tapioca.  Bitter  Cassava.)  Stem  sleuder,  5  to  9  feet 
high,  woody  below,  branched  above,  smooth,  bark  whitish.  Leaves  large,  ou 
loug  purpiisli  foot-stalks,  warty  near 
the  base,  falling  off  early  ;  stipules  nar- 
row, triangular,  acute,  smooth,  falling, 
blade  divided  into  3  to  7  oblong,  acute, 
narrow  lobes,  2  to  4  inches  loug,  smooth 
above,  glaucous  beneath.  Flowers 
monoecious,  in  axillary  or  terminal 
racemes;  perianths  bell-shaped,  deeply 
cut  into  5  acute  segments  ;  pistillate 
flowers,  larger  and  occupying  the  lower 
part  of  the  raceme ;  ovary  surrountied  at 
the  base  by  a  ring-like  receptacle, 
smooth  and  purple,  3-celled,  an  ovule 
in  each  cell ;  style  short,  surmounted  by 
3  stigmas.  Fruit  on  short  stalks ; 
fruit-vessel  half  an  inch  long,  globular, 
glabrous,  embossed  with  protuberances, 
()-winged,  .3-celled,  separating  into  3 
berry-like  tlivisions,  with  a  single  seed 
in  each,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
oblong,  smooth,  and  gray.  Hoot  fleshy, 
3  feet  long  and  6  to  9  inches  in 
diameter,  weighing  10  to  30  pounds,  fusiform 
milky  juice. 

There  are  30  well-marked  varieties  of  this  species  grown  in  Brazil. 

Geography.  —  The  home  of  the  tapioca  plant  is  tropical  and  subtropical 
South  America,  whence  it  has  been  carried  to  other  warm  countries,  as 
southern  Asia  and  western  Africa. 

Etymology.  —  The  history  of  the  names  of  the  tapioca  plants  is  somewhat 
obscure;  the  names  have  been  frequently  changed,  and  there  are  a  number 
of  synonyms.  Loudon  places  the  species  under  the  genus  Jatropha.  and 
makes  the  cassava  plant  ./.  manihot ;  but  I'ohl  jdaces  tlie  two  species  under 
manihot,  as  follows :  Manihot  utilissima,  }f.  a/n,  regarding  all  others  as  forms 
or  varieties  of  these  two. 

Manihot  \i>  a  name  applied  by  the  natives.  Ctillissima,  the  superlative  of 
the  Latin  adjective  utilis,  signifies  "  very  useful  "  Tapioca  is  a  name  in  the 
Brazilian  native  dialect  for  the  starch  or  substance  prepared  from  the  root  uf 


Manihot  ttilissima  (Tapioca), 
in  shape,  and  charged  with  a 


228  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

the  plant.  Jatropha  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words;  tarpos,  physician, 
and  rpo(pr),  food,  due  to  the  fact  that  physicians  order  it  as  food  for  invalids. 
Api,  Ai/pi,  or  Aipi,  is  an  ancient  native  name,  whose  meaning  is  unknown. 
Cassava,  like  tapioca,  is  a  native  name,  whose  signification  is  obscure. 

Cultivation.  —  The  root  grows  best  in  loose,  dry,  well-fertilized,  sandy  loam. 
During  the  first  month  or  six  Aveeks  it  needs  rain  or  irrigation ;  after  that,  it 
grows  well  without  either,  and  is  the  most  productive  and  valuable  crop  to  be 
made  in  its  region,  far  exceeding  either  coffee,  sugar,  or  cotton.  One  acre  will 
produce  about  4,000,000  of  pounds  when  the  root  is  full  grown,  that  is, 
from  a  year  to  eighteen  months  after  planting,  which  is  done  by  plunging 
^slips  of  the  plant  into  small  prepared  hillocks  of  sand,  or  by  burying  a  section 
of  a  stem  containing  a  bud.  The  M.  api  varieties  mature  in  about  eight 
months. 

Preparation.  —  The  roots  of  the  varieties  of  the  M.  api  species  are  not  poi- 
sonous ;  they  are  prepared  by  roasting,  and  have  the  taste  of  roasted  chestnuts. 
The  varieties  of  the  M.  utilissima  produce  the  larger  roots,  which  are  prepared 
as  follows :  The  natives  peel  the  roots,  then  reduce  them  to  pulp  by  rasping 
them  upon  a  rude  grater  made  by  inserting  rough  fragments  of  stones  in  a 
piece  of  bark ;  the  juice  is  then  forced  out  by  allowing  it  to  drain  in  loosely 
made  baskets,  and  then  baking  the  pulp  in  ovens ;  or  it  is  made  into  flat  cakes 
baked  or  dried  upon  hot  stones. 

The  tapioca  brought  to  market  is  largely  made  by  reducing  the  roots  by 
circular  rasps  or  graters  turned  by  water,  placed  into  coarse  bags,  the  juice 
being  removed  by  a  press.  The  pulp  is  then  subjected  to  heat  in  open  ovens 
or  on  iron  plates,  and  constantly  stirred  till  dry. 

Farina  is  the  coarse  meal  made  from  the  root,  universally  used  by  the 
Brazilians.     The  fine  siftings  make  the  tapioca. 

Use.  —  The  fresh-grated  pulp,  and  the  juice  which  is  expressed  from  it,  is 
charged  with  a  substance  analogous  to  prussic  acid ;  yet  when  the  pulp  and 
the  juice  are  subjected  to  heat,  the  poisonous  character  disappears,  and  the 
pulp  is  turned  into  a  wholesome  starchy  food  that  sustains  life  in  large  and 
densely  populated  districts,  and  is  used  for  puddings  for  dessert,  and  for 
invalid  food,  all  over  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

The  root,  cut  in  slices  and  exposed  to  heat,  is  an  excellent  food  for  cattle. 
The  natives  of  Brazil  make  a  fermented  liquor  of  the  juice,  which  is  highly 
intoxicating. 

The  fresh  juice  has  been  administered  to  cats  and  dogs,  which  die  with  con- 
vulsions in  about  twentv-five  minutes.  Thirty-six  drops  administered  to  a 
criminal  caused  death  in  six  minutes. 

RICINTJS,  Tourn.  Flowers  monoecious,  valvate  in  the  bud ;  sepals 
narrow  and  reddish,  3  to  5  in  number ;  no  corolla ;  stamens  numerous ; 
filaments  repeatedly  branching ;  anthers  from  the  tops  of  the  branches 
of  the  filaments  ;  ovary  globose,  3-celled,  1  ovule  in  a  cell ;  style  short ; 
stigmas  3-bifid,  plumose,  and  colored ;  capsule  large,  3-celled,  covered 
with  blunt,  rough  spines ;  seeds  large,  oily,  somewhat  in  shape  of  a 
tick  that  infests  sheep.     Annual. 

R.  communis,  L.  (Castor-oil  Plant.)  Stem  round,  stout,  frosted  or  glaucous, 
white,  shining,  purplish,  red  towards  the  top,  6  to  12  feet  in  height  in  the 
middle  United  States,  reaching  1.5  to  20  feet  in  hot  climates,  Avhere  it  is  peren- 
nial.   Leaves  alternate,  on  long  petioles,  6  to  10  inches  in  diameter;  subpeltate 


KT^niOKRTArK.T:. 


229 


diviflod  into  7  lancpolnto,  {.ointod,  sorrato  sof(iiionts;  stamiiiato  flowers  ou  the 
summit,  fertile  ones  on  the  lower  part  of  tlie  spike. 

Geography.  — The  geographical  range  is  l)roa(i.  'rh<jugh  a  sul)tropical 
plant,  it  grows  well  and  matures  its  seeds  in  a  latitude  as  high  as  42°. 

Etymolo<i;i.  —  lUcinus,  tlie  generic  name,  is  fnnn  tlie  Latin  rirlmts,  a  sheeji 
tick,  which  the  seed  resembles.  L'oinmnnls  is  Latin,  signifying  "common." 
The  common  name,  caslor-oil  plant,  is  believed  to  have  been  due  to  the  reseni- 
blance  of  the  oil  to  a  licpiid  contained  in  little  sacks  in  the  groin  of  the  castor 
(beaver).  Another  supposition  is  that  it  was  called  in  tlie  West  Indies  acjno 
casto,  and  that  casfo  has  l)een  corrupted  into  castor. 

History.  —  The  home  of  this  plant  is  southern  Asia.  l)e  raiidolle  believes 
its  home  to  be  eastern  Africa.  It  was  known  to  tlie  ancients,  and  is  spoken  of 
by  Dioscorides,  who  states 
that  the  seeds  are  violently 
cathartic.  When  it  was  first 
cultivated  is  not  known.  It 
was  grown  in  scnithcrn  Eu- 
rope and  the  countries  of  the 
Levant  at  least  300  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Japan,  Bengal, 
eastern  and  northern  Africa, 
southern  Europe,  and  tlie 
United  States. 

It  was  brought  to  America 
by  European  colonists.  It  is 
largely  cultivated  in  the  south- 
western United  States  to  pro- 
duce the  oil  of  commerce. 
Since  the  invasion  of  Kansas 
by  the  grasshoppers,  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  castor-oil  ])lant 
has  been  largely  practiced. 

Preparation.  —  The  mode 
of  procuring  the  oil  is  by  ex- 
pre.ssion.  The  coats  of  the 
seeds  are  firs^t  removed ;   the 

oil  is  squee/.ed  out  and  then  boiled  \vitli  water;  the  foreign  snli.><tauces  are 
t]ierel)y  coagulated,  and  tlie  dear  oil  floats  ui)on  the  top,  whence  it  is  drawn 
off  and  ])ut  into  suitable  casks  and  ve.^^sels  for  market.  The  best  is  made  in 
Italy,  where  it  is  manufactured  in  large  (juantities  and  witli  great  care,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Verona,  from  .^^eed  grown  in  Italy  and  im])orted  from  Africa 
and  India. 

^•"'''-  — 'I'lif  plant  is  grown  for  ornamcnf.  and  among  troj.ical  ].lants  makes 
a  desirable  object. 

The  oil  is  a  mild,  speedy,  and  safe  purgative,  and  for  children  is  the  be.«Jt 
cathartic  medicine  in  use. 

It  is  u.sed  in  the  preparation  of  salves,  liniments,  and  ointments,  and  dis- 
.solved  in  alcohol  is  largely  u.^ed  in  jireparations  for  hair-dre.s.sing.«;. 

It  mixes  with  alcohol  in  all  proportions,  becomes  solid  at  0  Fahrenheit, 
and  boils  at  20)5°.  It  is  the  heaviest  of  all  oils.  The  purgative  priii.iple  is  not 
known  to  chemists. 


RiciNUS  COM  M VMS  (Castor-oil). 


230 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Order  L.     URTICACE-ffi.     (Nettle  Family.) 

Trees,  shrubs,  or  herbs.  Leaves  generally  alternate  and  stipulate. 
Flowers  unisexual  or  polygamous,  and  axillary ;  perianth  single,  some- 
times adnate  to  the  ovary  in  the  female  flower,  or  wanting ;  stamens, 
when  present,  usually  equal  and  opposite  the  lobes  of  the  perianth ; 
ovary  1-celled,  1-carpelled ;  style  simple  or  2-cleft ;  ovule  solitary. 
Fruit  an  akene  or  drupe,  or  many  fruits  coalescing  into  a  syncarp, 
with  fleshy  accrescent  torus. 

Genera,  108  ;  species,  1,.500 ;  habitat,  warm  and  temperate  countries. 

MORTIS,  Tourn.  (Mulberry.)  Flowers  unisexual,  usually  monoecious, 
but  in  some  plants  dioecious  or  polygamous  ;  male  flowers  spiked  and 

axillary.  Sepals  4,  equal, 
imbricate  in  aestivation, 
but  expanded  in  flower- 
ing ;  stamens  4.  Pistil- 
late flowers,  with  a  4-se- 
paled  calyx,  in  opposite 
pairs,  1  pair  larger,  all 
upright  and  persistent, 
and  becoming  pulpy  and 
juicy.  Leaves  alternate, 
simple,  exstipulate,  de- 
ciduous, lobed,  rough,  3-4 
inches  broad.  Flowers 
greenish  -  white.  Fruit 
the  aggregate  of  the 
ovary,  called  "  mulberry." 


MoRDs  RUBRA  (Red  Mulberry). 


1.  M.  rubra,  L.  (Red 
Mulberry.)  Leaves  ovate, 
cordate,  serrate,  rough 
above,  soft  and  downy 
beneath,  frequently  lobed  on  young  shoots.  Flowers  often  dioecious.  Fruit 
dark-purple  (when  ripe  turning  black),  cylindrical,  half  to  three  quarters  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Fruit  ripe  in  .July.  Tree  15  to  30  feet  high,  but  .some- 
times grows  to  a  much  greater  height ;  head  12  to  15  feet  in  diameter. 

2.  M.  alba,  L.  (White  Mulberry.)  Leaves  obliquely  ovate,  heart-shaped, 
acute,  serrate,  frequently  lobed,  smooth  and  shining  above.  Fruit  whitish, 
soft,  sweet,  insipid. 

Geography.  —  M.  rubra  is  a  common  tree  in  western  New  England,  the 
southern  parts  of  Upper  Canada,  the  Dakotas,  Kansas,  and  the  South.  M.  alba 
flourishes  in  southern  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  also  found  in  the  L^nited  States 
south  of  the  forty-third  parallel  of  latitude  in  the  older  parts  of  the  country. 

Etymologtj.  —  Moms  is  from  the  Greek  ix6pov,  a  mulberry.  Rubra  is  Latin 
for  "red,"  and  alba  is  Latin  for  ""white."  Mulberry  is  from  the  Old  English 
moolhery,  Anglo-Saxon,  morher'ie,  from  the  Greek  fxopov. 


TTRTICACE^..  231 

Histon/.  —  The  whito  mulberry  is  a  native  of  Cliina  and  Japan  ;  it  wa<; 
introduced  into  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  soon 
became  naturalized  in  Italy  and  Greece,  as  well  as  in  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia. 
Cortes  procured  its  introduction  into  Mexico  in  1 522 ;  it  was  sent  to  Virginia 
in  1619  by  order  of  James  I.,  and  its  cultivation  was  commanded  by  law. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution  the  British  government  paid  a  bounty  on 
raw  silk  produced  in  the  North  American  colonies  ;  some  of  this  silk  was,  in 
1772,  presented  to  the  queen  and  to  the  wives  of  the  propriet(jrs  of  Pennsyl- 
vania bv  Dr.  Franklin,  then  the  agent  of  Pennsylvania  in  London.  In  the 
same  year  a  colony  of  Saltzburgers,  who  were  familiar  with  the  mulberry  and 
silk  culture,  sent  to  England  from  their  settlement  of  New  Ebenezer,  in 
Georgia,  nearlv  500  pounds  of  silk.  Shortly  afterward  the  settlement  was 
broken  up.  and  the  industry  was  obliterated  during  the  Revolution.  Upon 
the  restoration  of  peace,  efforts  were  made  in  many  of  the  states,  dating 
from  1783  in  Connecticut  to  1866  iu  California,  to  revive  the  industry  by 
legislation.  In  1838  a  mania  for  the  importation  of  and  speculation  in  the 
plants  of  M.  alba,  var.  multicaulis,  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  broke  out  in  the 
United  States,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  having  been  invested  during 
a  single  week  in  Pennsylvania  alone.  The  passion  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
tree    subsided   within  "a    year,   but  the  species  remains,   and   has   become 

naturalized.  •     x-      , 

Dn  account  of  the  absence  of  cheap  and  abundant  skilled  labor  in  North 
America,  all  stimulations  bv  government  aid  have  failed  to  establish  the  mul- 
berry and  silk  culture  there,  while  China,  Japan,  western  India,  Italy,  and  the 
Levant,  where  chea|.  skilled  labor  can  be  found,  have  become  the  sources  of 
the  world's  supplv. 

f;se.  —  M.  rubra,  or  the  red  mulberry,  has  a  hard,  light,  durable  wood,  much 
used  in  ship-building  in  the  southern' United  States  for  the  light  timbers  of 
vessels  and  boats.  The  fruit  is  blackish-red,  with  an  agreeable  subacid  taste. 
It  is  wholesome  and  refreshing  when  eaten  directly  from  the  tree  before  the 
acetous  fermentation  sets  in.  The  leaves  are  rough,  and  are  used  for  feeding 
silk-worms,  Init  for  this  purpose  are  inferior  to  the  leaves  of  the  M.  alba. 

M.  alba,  or  the  white  mulberry,  is  the  tree  so  extensively  grown  for  the 
culture  of  silk-worms,  and  the  finest  and  strongest  silks  are  produced  from 
worms  fed  upon  its  leaves.  It  is  a  much  more  rapid  grower  than  the  other 
species  of  this  genus,  and  is  di.stinguished  by  its  many  slender  white-barked 
shoots.  Its  leaves  are  slender,  and  highly  charged  with  a  glutinous,  milky 
.substance  resembling  the  sap  of  the  hevea.  This  substance  gives  strength  to 
the  silk  produced  bv  the  silk- worms  fed  on  its  leaves.  Trees  grown  upon 
high,  gravelly,  poor  soil,  in  hilly  localities  produce  better  silk  than  trees 
grown  upon  generous  soil. 

ULMUS.  (Elm.)  Flowers  in  lateral  group:?,  appearing  in  advance 
of  the  leaves,  bisexual  and  monoecious  ;  calyx  campannlate.  ;'>-  or  4-8- 
lobed,  imbricate  in  the  bud,  persistent;  stamens  equal  in  number  to 
segments  ;  style  short,  or  wanting;  stigmas  2.  Fruit  a  samara,  with 
a  membranous  wing.  Leaves  alternate,  stipulate,  serrate,  feather- 
veined,  usually  unequal  at  the  base,  rough  to  the  touch.  Flowers 
reddish-white. 

1.  TJ.  Americana.  L.  (American  Elm.  Wliitc  Elm.  Weeping  Elm.>  Trunk 
2  to  5  feet  iu  diameter  near  the  base,  usually  dividing  into  2  or  more  branches 


232 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


within  15  to  50  feet  from  the  ground,  wliich  when  growing  near  each  other 
interlace  and  form  graceful  curves  and  arches ;  the  leading  branches  some- 
times reach  the  height  of  120  feet. 

2.  U.  fulva,  Mx.  (Slippery  Elm.  Red  Elm.)  Trunk  40  to  60  feet  high, 
12  to  25  inches  in  diameter  ;  wood  reddish-yellow,  tough,  inner  bark  highly 
charged  with  mucilage.  Branches  rough,  not  forking  as  in  No.  1.  Leaves 
oblong-ovate,  acuminate,  more  nearly  equal  at  base  than  in  No.  1,  unevenly 
serrate,  pubescent,  rough ;  buds,  before  expansion,  clothed  with  soft  hairs, 
large.  Flowers  at  the  end  of  young  twigs ;  calyx  downy  and  sessile.  Sta- 
mens short,  7.     Flowers  in  April. 

3.  U.  racemosa,  Thomas.  (Corky  Elm.)  Trunk  50  to  80  feet  high,  li  to  3 
feet  in  diameter,  in  habit  and  appearance  like  No.  1  ;  branches,  when  young, 
slightly  pubescent ;  scales  of  the  buds  ciliate ;  bark  of  the  branches  roughened 

by  corky  lines.  Leaves  as  in  No.  1, 
with  more  regular  veins.  Flowers  in 
racemes, 

4.  U.  alata,  Mx.  (Winged  Elm.) 
Trunk  29  to  30  feet  high,  10  to  15 
inches  in  diameter.  Branches  here 
and  there  roughened  with  corky 
ridges,  or  wings,  otherwise  smooth  ; 
scales  of  the  buds  and  young  branch- 
lets  glabrous.  Leaves  unequal  at 
base,  downy  beneath,  oblong-ovate  or 
lanceolate,  sharp,  thick,  small,  and 
doubly  serrate;    petioles  short. 

5.  U.  campestris,  L.  (English 
Elm.)  Trunk  60  to  80  feet  high, 
branching  irregularly,  branches  ex- 
tending sub-horizontally ;  bark  of  a 
dull  lead-color,  smooth  when  young, 
cracking   into   irregular   strips   with 

rather   small.     Flowers   rusty-brown ; 
and  yellow.     Flowers  in  March ;  seed 


Ulmus  campestris  (English  Elm). 


age.  Leaves  rough,  doubly  serrate, 
samara  oblong,  deeply  cleft,  smooth, 
ripens  in  May. 

The  English  elm  is  an  important  timber-tree,  and  much  attention  has  been 
given,  especially  in  England,  to  its  cultivation.  No  tree  sports  more  freely 
than  the  elm,  and  English  writers  describe  about  20  well-marked  varieties  to 
be  found  in  Europe. 

There  are  about  a  dozen  species  of  the  elm,  with  a  large  number  of  varieties. 
Linnseus  went  so  far  as  to  advance  the  belief  that  all  the  elms  are  varieties 
of  one  species. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  elm  extends,  in  Europe,  from 
the  Mediterranean  countries  to  the  middle  of  European  Russia  ;  in  America, 
from  the  southern  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ; 
and  west  to  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Etymology. —  Uimns  is  from  the  German  ulm,  Lati'.iized  into  ?//?«?/s,  supposed 
to  come  from  the  base  al,  grow,  and  believed  to  have  been  applied  on  account 
of  the  rapid  growth  of  this  tree.  Elm,  the  common  name,  is  from  the  old 
European  name,  «?/n  or  Urn.     The  specific  names  of  the  American  species  are 


ITRTICACEJE.  233 

Amerfcana,i\erWo(\  from  America,  its  native  country  ;  fulva,  T.atin.  yellow,  due 
to  the  color  of  wood  ;  racemosa,  the  Howors  being  borne  in  racemes  ;  ainta, 
from  the  Latin  ala,  a  wing,  due  to  the  ridges  in  the  bark  of  the  branches, 
wliich  are  wing-like;  campestris,  Latin  campester,  pertaining  to  a  plain  or 
field,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  plant  grows  in  open  places. 

Histori/.  —  The  elm  is  mentioned  by  Pliny.  Little  is  known  of  its  early 
history,  and  at  what  date  it  began  to  assume  importance  as  an  ornamental 
tree  is  not  recorded.  There  are  some  remarkable  specimens  mentioned  for 
size  and  age.  One  planted  by  Henry  IV.  of  France nvas  standing  in  1790. 
One  in  England,  planted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  cut  down  in  1745 ;  this  was 
more  than  four  feet  iu  diameter. 

The  elm  is  the  most  majestic  tree  we  have  in  planted  grounds ;  the  ni.jst 
desirable  are   the  U.  Americana  of   America,   and   the   U.   campestris    of 

Europe. 

Use.  — The  Ulmus  Americana  is  a  favorite  ornamental  tree,  on  account  ot 
its  majestic  form  ;  it  forks  into  large  branches,  and  wlien  planted  in  parallel 
rows  along  walks  and  drives,  the  branches  interlace,  forming  graceful  curves 
aud  pointed  arches.  The  timber  of  this  tree  has  not  been  used  nmch  in 
America,  because  an  abundance  of  better  timber  is  to  be  found.  The  Euro- 
pean U.  campestris  is  not  only  prized  as  an  ornamental  tree,  but  it  yields  an 
excellent  lumber,  whicli  is  reinarkable  for  its  dural)ility,  especially  in  water. 

The  American  species,  U.  fulva,  has  a  thick  inner  bark,  which  is  highly 
charged  with  mucilage,  and  is  used  in  medical  practice  for  throat  and  bron- 
chial troubles,  and  for  poultices. 

HUMULUS,  L.  Flowers  dicecioiis;  cah^x  of  the  staminate  flowers 
5-petaleil,  with  5  stamens;  anthers  with  2  pores;  pistillate  flowers 
axillary  in  short  strobiliforni  spikes;  bracts  leaf-like,  laxly  imbri- 
cated, '2-fiowered,  each  floret  sessile  at  the  base  of  a  scale-like  invo- 
lucre, embraced  by  its  involute  margin;  calyx  urceolate,  truncate, 
with  small  teeth;  ovary  ovoid,  compressed  ovule,  single  and  pendu- 
lous; strobile  membranaceous,  made  up  of  the  enlarged  imbricated 
bracts  and  .scales.  Fruit  roundish,  egg-shaped,  inclosed  in  the  trun- 
cated calyx  ;  cotyledons  linear,  spirally  involute.  Perennial  twining 
herb,  with  opposite  leaves. 

H.  lupulus,  L.  (Common  Hop.)  Root  branching;  stem  20  feet  long,  a 
number  from  the  same  root,  twining  with  tlie  sun,  striate  or  angular,  twi.sted  ; 
slender  l)ranches  near  the  top,  upon  which  the  flowers  and  fruit  ai)pear.  Leaves 
opposite,  and  lobed  near  the  root,  alternate  and  entire  above,  scabrous  on  the 
upper  surface ;  petioles  long  ;  stipules  elliptical-lanceolate  and  wedge-shaped 
below,  the  scales  sprinkled  with  resinous  dots,  which  resin  produces  the  peculiar 
odor  and  taste  of  the  hop.     July. 

There  are  several  varieties,  which  differ  very  little  from  each  other. 

Geor/raphi/.  — The.  hop  grows  wild  throughout  middle  Europe  and  Sil)eria, 
as  far  north  as  the  f)2d  parallel,  the  Levant,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  hsis  been 
introduced  into  Egvpt.  It  is  also  indigenous  to  .southern  Japan  and  to  North 
America,  along  the  font  bills  (.f  the  Rocky  Mountains,  along  the  upper 
Arkansas.  Missouri,  and  Mississippi  rivers,  and  near  the  shores  of  Lake 
Winnipeg,  also  throughout  the  Atlantic  States  north  of  Virginia.  The  variety 
in  cultivation  was  brought  to  northeast  America  by  European  colonists. 


234 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


Etymology.  —  The  name  kumulus,  from  the  Latin,  humus,  earth,  was  given  to 
this  plant  because  it  delights  in  new  rich  earth.  Its  native  haunts  are  in  the 
deep  soils  of  swamps  and  low  grounds.  The  specific  name  is  a  diminutive 
of  lupus,  the  Latin  for  wolf,  "  a  little  wolf."  As  it  grows  among  the  wil- 
lows it  twines  about  them  and  chokes  them,  as  the  wolf  does  a  flock  of 
sheep.  The  common  name,  hop,  is  from  the  Old  English  hoppen,  which 
signifies  "climb,"  hence  the  climbing  plant. 

History.  —  When  this  plant  was  introduced  into  cultivation  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  into  England  from 
Flanders,  and  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  gardeners  and  agriculturists 
first  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  more  than  400  years  ago.  Malted  liquors 
had  been  formerly  called  ale ;  but  the  use  of  hops  made  them  heer.     This  plant 

was  known  to  the  Eomans 
before  the  Christian  era. 
Pliny  speaks  of  it  as  a 
garden-vegetable. 

Use.  —  The  hop  plays 
an  important  part  in  the 
manufacture  of  beer  and 
ale.  The  plant  furnishes 
the  substance  known  as 
lupulin,  in  which  the  vir- 
tues of  the  hop  reside  in 
part.  It  is  said  to  clarify 
these  liquors,  and  to  pre- 
vent acidification. 

It  is  aromatic,  astrin- 
gent, tonic,  sudorific,  and 
anodyne,  and  promotes 
sleep  in  some  cases  of  in- 
somnia when  other  reme- 
dies fail.  A  pillow  filled 
with  hops  is  said  to  have 
been  used  by  George  III. 
of  England  in  his  severe 
illness  in  1787,  by  direction  of  his  physician,  Dr.  Willis. 

It  is  an  important  ingredient  in  the  domestic  materia  medica.  It  is  used 
also  in  making  yeast.  Young  shoots  were  formerly  prepared  for  the  table  and 
eaten  as  a  substitute  for  asparagus.  In  Sweden  a  strong  cloth  is  made  of  the 
fiber  of  the  stem. 


HuMULUs  LUPULus  (Common  Hop). 


FICTTS,  Tourn.  (Fig  Tree.)  Flowers  monoecious,  lining  the  interior 
surface  of  a  hollow  globular  or  pear-shaped  fleshy  receptacle,  at  the  top 
of  which  is  an  opening,  which  is  shut  by  small  scales,  staminate 
flowers  above,  and  the  fertile  ones  beneath ;  calyx  of  the  staminate 
flowers  3-parted ;  stamens  3  ;  pistillate  flowers  with  2  stigmas  and  a 
5-cleft  calyx.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  stipulate,  deciduous,  and  lobed. 
Fruit  in  shape  of  a  little  bottle,  edible. 

1.  F.  Carica,  L.  (Common  Fig.)  A  small,  irregularly  branched  tree,  .5  to 
20  feet  high;  or  an  irregular  straggling  bush  branching  near  the  root,  forming 
an  irregular  head.     Branches  cylindrical ;  bark  ])ale-reddish,  young  branches 


URTTCACE^. 


235 


showinc;  scars,  from  which  the  leaves  and  stipules  have  fallen  ;  twigs  downy. 
Leaves  alternate,  on  long,  thick,  curved,  and  downy  petioles ;  blades  4  inches 
long,  nearly  as  wide,  still  and  rough  on  the  upper  side,  soft,  woolly  underneath, 
cordate  at  base,  3  to  5  palmate,  broad,  blunt  lobes,  irregularly  and  coarsely 
toothed;  sti])ules  large,  clasping  the  whole  stem  or  branch,  falling  off  early. 
Fruit  axillary  and  solitary,  on  short  stalks,  varying  from  1  to  3  inches  in 
length,  smooth,  purplish,  turning  to  a  dingv  yellow  wlieu  ripe,  soft  and  fleshy, 
with  numerous  seed-like  nuts,  1 -celled. 


2.  F.  elastica.  (Indian  Fig.  India  Rubber.)  Trunk  from  80  to  120  feet 
in  heiglit,  and  5  to  10  feet  in  diameter.  Like  the  F.  Hengalensis  it  produces 
aerial  roots,  which  it  throws  to  the  ground,  where  they  frequently  take  root 
in  the  soil  or  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  among  which  it  delights  to  grow.  A 
singular  feature  of  this  tree  is  its 
enormous  roots,  which  lie  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  coiling  and 
curling  over  and  about  the  rocks  like 
great  serpents.  Branches  large  and 
irregular;  bark  gray.  Leaves  ovoid 
or  elliptical,  dark-green,  thick,  leath- 
ery, and  regularly  veined,  and  acumi- 
nate and  glossy.  Flowers  in  axillary 
panicles,  crimson.  Fruit  small,  and 
not  edible. 

This  tree  yields  the  India  rubber 
of  the  East  Indies. 


^-^^ 


Ficiis  Carica  (Common  Fig). 


3.  F.  Bengalensis,  W.  (Banyan 
Tree.)  This  tree  is  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  genus  Ficus,  and 
seems  to  deserve  a  place  here. 

The  trunk  is  from  5  to  9  feet  in 
diameter,  and  rises  to  the  height  of 
100  feet.  The  branches  extend  hori- 
zontally, and  send  down  vertical  branches  to  the  ground,  which  take  root, 
become  stems,  and  branch  throwing  down  other  branches,  wiiich  take  root 
in  the  same  way,  until  the  whole  presents  the  appearance  of  a  vast  leafy 
canopy,  supported  in  some  cases  by  more  than  fifty  pillars,  covering  a  space 
from  300  to  as  much  as  400  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  stated  by  travellers  that 
these  strange  unions  of  trees  sometimes  rise  in  pyramidal  form  to  the  vjist 
height  of  1.50  feet. 

The  ficus  genus  is  large,  including  some  curious  and  interesting  trees.  The 
edible  figs  are  confined  entirely  to  the  species  car/ca  and  its  numerous  varieties. 

The  varieties  of  V.  Carica  are  as  follows;  1st,  growing  without  cultivation, 
with  small  and  nearly  entire  leaves  ;  2d,  under  cultivation,  with  large  leaves, 
deeply  cut  and  lobed,  fruit  white  or  dark  ;  3d,  under  cultivation,  with  large 
leaves,  nearly  entire. 

These  three  divisions  separate  into  several  v:irioti(\<:,  each  depending  upon 
the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  fruit. 

Geofjraphy. — The  fig  grows  well  in  all  >ulitn>piial  countries;  and  while  it 
will  endure  the  temperature  of  40°  north  latitude,  and  with  slight  protection 
fruits  sparingly,  it  Hourishes  best  jusf  in  the  cdirc  ,,f  tlic  region  of  no  frost. 


236  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Etymology.  —  The  word  Jicus  has  been  derived  from  the  Latin  word,  fectin- 
dus,  fruitful,  on  account  of  its  heavy  bearing  ;  also  from  fag,  a  Hebrew  name; 
as  well  as  from  the  Sanscrit  /e$r.  Fig  is  a  mere  translation  of  the  word  ficus. 
Car'ica  is  from  Caria,  from  Avhich  town  fiue  figs  were  exported  in  ancient 
times.  Banyan,  Hindu  for  "  merchant,"  is  applied  to  these  trees  on  account  of 
their  frequent  use  as  market  places.     The  other  names  are  self-explanator\'. 

History.  —  The  fig  is  spoken  of  frequently  in  Scripture.  Greek  tradition 
carries  back  the  use  of  the  fig  to  remote  antiquity,  leading  to  the  inference 
that  it  was  used  prior  to  the  cereals,  and  figured  as  largely  in  the  support  of 
human  life  as  the  plantain  family.  Even  so  late  as  after  the  Exodus  we  find 
the  Israelites  deploring  the  failure  of  the  fig  crop  as  a  great  calamity.  In  the 
days  of  Vergil  the  cultivation  of  the  fig  near  Rome  was  carried  on  to  greater 
perfection  than  that  of  the  vine. 

The  home  of  the  fig  is  believed  to  be  western  Asia,  perhaps  Persia,  whence 
it  has  worked  its  way  both  eastward  and  westward.  In  very  early  times  it 
had  spread  throughout  the  Mediterranean  basin,  along  both  shores,  and  as  far 
west  as  the  Canary  Islands.  In  the  days  of  Theophrastus,  who  lived  about 
300  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  it  was  a  well  known  fruit. 
It  has  spread  through  all  the  subtropical  countries  where  European  coloniza- 
tion has  been  established.  The  tree  endures  tlie  climate  of  southern  England, 
but  does  not  fruit  well  there.  Some  trees,  carried  to  England  in  1525,  and 
planted  in  the  garden  of  Cardinal  Pole,  are  now  in  good  health ;  some  of  them 
being  50  feet  in  height  and  10  inches  in  diameter.  The  fig  is  supposed  to  have 
been  taken  into  England  in  the  first  century  by  Agricola. 

Use.  —  The  fig  is  a  favorite  dessert  fruit,  both  in  a  natural  and  a  pre- 
served state.  In  soutliwestern  Asia,  southern  Europe,  and  northern  Africa 
it  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  a  large  number  of  people,  and  is  eaten 
just  as  it  is  taken  from  the  tree.  When  figs  are  dried  in  tlie  sun  or  in  a 
kiln  and  packed  tightly,  they  keep  well,  and  endure  long  voyages  without 
damage. 

Medicinally,  they  are  laxative,  and  roasted  they  are  used  as  a  poultice  for 
boils,  and  applied  to  the  gums  to  allay  inflammation. 

Some  of  the  Chinese  and  Indian  fig-trees  are  the  abodes  of  the  lac  insect. 
Coccus  lacca.  The  females  make  their  homes  upon  the  ends  of  tlie  twigs  of 
the  fig-tree,  and  deposit  thereon  a  resinous  sub.stance,  which  enters  into  the 
manufacture  of  sealing-wax,  varnish,  watei'proof  hats,  etc. 

Marts.  —  The  markets  of  the  world  are  supplied  by  Turkey  and  Greece, 
Spain  and  Egypt.  About  7,000,000  pounds  are  taken  from  these  countries 
to  the  United  States  annually,  and  about  20,000,000  pounds  are  taken  to 
England. 

CANNABIS,  Tourn.  Flowers  dioecious  ;  staminate  flowers  in  a 
raceme  ;  calyx  with  5  nearly  equal  sepals  ;  stamens  5,  nodding ;  pis- 
tillate flowers  spicate,  clustered,  single-bracted  ;  calyx  urceolate, 
1-sepaled,  and  membranous  ;  ovary  globose,  1 -celled,  inclosing  a  single 
ovule  ;  style  terminal ;  seed  hanging.  An  erect  annual.  Leaves  alter- 
nate above,  opposite  below,  digitate. 

C.  sativa,  L.  (Hemp.)  Stem  5  to  18  feet  high,  roundish,  angular,  sulcate, 
and  rough-branched.  Leaves  opposite  l)elow,  alternate  above,  digitately 
divided  ;  leaflets  5  to  7,  linear-lanceolate,  and  toothed,  the  two  at  the  base 
smaller  and  frequently  entire,  the   stipulate  foot-stalks  1  to  3  inches  long. 


URTICACE^. 


237 


Stainiuate  flowers  ^reeii,  jXMluiiculati;,  axillary,  fr»)\vik'il  at  the  sminnit  of  the 
stem  aud  brauches;  pistillate  flowers  sessile,  usually  in  pairs. 

Geographi  — The  geographical  range  of  hemp  is  very  wide.  It  flourishes 
throughout  the  edges  of  the  tropics,  aud  all  through  the  temperate  zones, 
to  about  the  oOth  parallel. 

Etifinulogy. —  Cannab'is  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Arabic  word  cannab, 
made  up  of  can,  a  reed,  aud  ab,  small ;  hence,  a  little  reed.  Sutica,  the  specific 
name,  is  from  the  Latiu  sativus,  sown  or  planted.  The  meaning  of  the  word 
hemp  is  obscure. 

Histuri/.  —  The  home  of  the  hemp  is  supposed  to  be  Chinese  Tartary,  north- 
ern India,  and  southwestern  Siberia,  whence  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  car- 
ried into  Europe  by  the  Scythians  about  1,500  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  ancient  Scyth- 
ians burnt  the  seed,  aud  were  intoxicated 
by  breathing  the  fumes. 

Hemp  is  an  important  crop  in  China, 
Chinese  Tartary,  Japan,  Persia,  Hindustan, 
Egypt,  southern  Africa,  most  of  the  states 
of  Europe,  and  especially  Russia.  It  has 
been  introduced  into  America,  and  is  cul- 
tivated in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
Hemp  of  a  superior  quality  is  raised  in 
southern  Russia  and  Poland.  The  hemp 
of  the  North  produces  the  best  fabrics  and 
cordage.  The  plant  when  grown  in  liot 
countries  possesses  qualities  wholly  un- 
known to  it  when  raised  in  colder  regions. 
That  grown  in  the  tropics  and  subtropical 
regions  yields  substances  that  are  narcotic 
and  intoxicating. 

Use.  —  The  fiber  of  the  hemp  plant  is 
among  the  most  important  of  all  tlie  tex- 
tile products.  It  is  made  into  cloth,  and 
furnishes  material  for  the  coarse  clothing 
of  a  large  part  of  the  ])eople  of  northern 
Europe   aud   Asia.      The   bagging-cloths, 

and  the  sails  and  cordage  for  vessels  all  over  the  world,  are  made  of  homp. 
The  Russians  obtain  an  oil  from  hemp  seeds,  which  they  use  in  their  culinary 
preparations  and  to  mix  their  paints,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  soft  soap. 
The  seed  is  also  fed  to  caged  Itirds,  and  is  said  to  change  the  color  of  their 
plumage  from  red  to  black. 

The  leaf,  wlien  grown  in  warm  climates,  is  smoked,  and  produces  a  narcotic 
and  intoxicating  effect  upon  the  smoker,  which  is  said  to  alleviate  pain, 
increase  the  appetite,  and  give  rise  to  mental  cheerfulness  It  also  produces 
violent  coughing  and  spitting  of  blood.  From  the  whole  ])Iant  also  exudes  a 
resinous  substance,  which,  when  smoked,  produces  intoxication  ;  when  taken 
internally  in  small  doses,  it  ])roduces  furor  and  imparts  wonderful  strength; 
when  taken  in  larger  (piantitics  it  produces  hilarity  and  stimulates  the  appe- 
tite, but  the  patient  finally  becomes  insensible,  and  liis  limbs  will  remain  in 
any  position  they  may  be  ])laced.  After  a  time  the  person  recovers  with«jut 
any  ap})arent  ill  effects  to  either  mind  or  body.  The  resinous  sul)stance  is  the 
celebrated  ha.shish  of  the  Arabs.     Bhany  is  a  narcotic  intoxicating  drug,  pre- 


Cannabis  sativa  (Hemp). 


238 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


pared  from  the  leaves  aud  seed-vessels  uf  hemp.     It  is  a  favorite  drink  in  the 
East  Indies. 

Those  who  frequent  places  in  Egypt  where  hashish  is  sold  are  of  the  lowest 
class,  and  the  term  has  come  to  convey  the  idea  of  disorderly  or  riotous  people. 
The  plural,  hashshasheen,  is  believed  to  be  the  origin  of  our  word  "assassin." 
because  the  Arabs  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades  used  the  drug  to  produce 
insensibility  in  their  victims. 


Order  LI.     JUGLANDACE^. 


Flowers  monoecious,  staminate  ones  small,  and  often  in  hanging- 
catkins  ;  perianth  single,  attached  to  the  inner  face  of  a  bract  which 
is  6-lobed,  sometimes  2-3-lobed ;  stamens  3  to  40,  inserted  at  the  base 
of  the  bract ;  hlaments  very  short,  free  or  coherent  at  the  base ;  pistil- 
late flowers  terminal,  solitary  or  few,  and  clustered  ;  calyx  tube  ovoid, 
limb  4-toothed  ;  styles  2,  very  short ;  stigmas  2,  elongated,  recurved. 
Fruit  drupaceous,  rarely  nut-like,  containing  a  single  nut;  epicarp 
fleshy,  fibrous  within,  indehiscent ;  nut  woody,  rugose,  and  irregularly 
grooved  lengthwise.  Trees  or  shrubs,  with  watery,  resinous,  aromatic 
juice.  Leaves  odd-pinnate,  exstipulate ;  staminate  catkins  from  last 
year's  branches,  or  at  the  base  of  the  younger  branches. 

No.  of  genera,  5 ;  species,  3 ;  temperate  regions,  and  mountains  in 
the  tropics. 

JUGLANS,  L.  Bract  of  the  pistillate  flower  with  its  bractlets  closely 
adhering  to  the  ovary,  irregularly  toothed  at  the  perianth  limb  so  as  to 
resemble  an  outer  perianth ;  exocarp  of 
the  drupe  closely  adhering  to  the  wrinkled 
endocarp,  or  at  last  coming  away  irregu- 
larly. Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers 
separate,  but  upon  the  same  plant ;  stami- 
nate flowers  in  solitary,  drooping  catkins ; 
calyx  composed  of  5  to  6  scale-like  sepals ; 
stamens  18  to  36,  usually  about  20.  Pistil- 
late flowers,  1  to  5  in  a  group,  terminal  on 
the  new  wood  ;  caljrx  ovate,  and  4-toothed ; 
petals  4  in  number ;  styles  short,  2  in 
number;  stigmas  2.  Fruit  a  drupe,  nut 
rugose,  hard,  globose,  a  little  compressed 
laterally,  2-valved.  Covering  of  the  nut 
a  fleshy  husk,  indehiscent.     Kernel  large, 

.JuGLANs  oiNEREA  (Buttemut).  ollv,  SWCet. 


1.  J.  cinerea,  L.  (Butternut.)  Stem  from  10  to  30  feet  in  height,  irregu- 
larly branched,  aud  from  6  inches  to  1  foot  in  diameter.  Leaf  made  up  of  7 
or  8  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  a  terminal  one  ;  leaflets  rounded  at  the  base,  elliptical- 
lanceolate,  serrate,  and  pubescent  underneath;  aments  cylindrical.  Flowers 
greenish,  appearing  in  April  and  May.     Fruit  cylindrical,  2  inches  long  and 


JUGLANDACE.T:.  •     239 

I  iiieh  in  dianu'ter,  ending  with  an  ai-uniinatt-  tip.  KxtK-arp  or  .mter  shell 
like  that  of  J.  nigra,  hut  thinner;  nut  corrugated  in  the  direction  of  the  longer 
axis ;  kernel  sweet  and  huttery. 

(;co(7ra/>/<y.  — (Geographical  range  between  the  parallels  of  48°  and  36^  north 
latitude,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  Kiver. 

Kt,/mologi/.—Juglans  is  derived  from  the  words  Joi-/s,  Jupiter,  and  glatis, 
Latin  for  "nut,"  — that  is,  nut  or  fruit  for  Jupiter  or  the  gods,  on  account  of 
its  delicate  (piality  as  a  food.  The  common  name,  butternut,  is  due  to  the 
delicate  huttery  taste  of  the  kernels.  The  specific  name,  cinerea,  comes  from 
the  Latin  cinereiis,  ash-colored,  due  to  the  ashy-gray  color  of  the  bark. 

Hisiori/. The  home  of  the  butternut  is  northeastern  North  America.     It 

is  sometimes  planted  for  ornament,  but  delights  in  rocky  places,  and  loves  the 
hills;  has  been  planted  in  middle  Europe  and  in  England,  and  grows  and 
fruits  well  there. 

Cse.—The  butternut  is  a  favorite  dessert  nut.  A  delicate  salad  oil  is 
obtained  from  the  kernels  by  expression,  and  the  fruit  in  an  uuripe  state  is 
used  for  pickling. 

The  wood  has  a  coarse  grain,  but 
takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  used  for 
cabinet  ware  and  for  Avaiuscoting. 
The  chips  are  also  used  to  manufac- 
ture beer. 

The  outer  shell  of  the  fruit  fur- 
nishes a  dye,  which  is  largely  used  to 
color  home-made  fabrics  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

A  decoction  of  the  bark  is  boiled 

down  to  a  mass  and  made  into  pills, 

which   are  administered  as  a  gentle 

cathartic. 

JuGLANS  NIGRA  ( Black  Waliiut). 

2.  J.  nigra,  L.  (Black  Walnut. 
Black-wooded  Walnut  Tree.)  Stem  straight,  40  to  80  feet  high,  and  1  to  4 
feet  in  diameter ;  branches  crooked  and  straggling,  forming  an  open  and 
picturesque  head,  from  lo  to  30  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  compound,  with 
7  to  8  pairs  of  leaflets  and  a  terminal  one,  odd  one  frecjuently  wanting ; 
leaflets  slender,  cordate,  acuminate,  unequal  at  the  base,  on  short  petioles. 
Flowers  greenish,  appearing  in  May  in  the  northern  limits,  and  in  A])ril 
further  south.     Fruit  ripens  in  October. 

Geography. — The  black  walnut  is  indigenous  in  southwestern  New  York, 
and  further  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  west  some  distance  beyond  the 
Mississippi  Kiver.  It  has  been  introduced  into  the  eastern  middle  States  and 
southern  New  England,  where  it  grows  and  fruits  well. 

Etymologi/.  —  Xigrci  is  from  the  Latin  niger,  black,  from  the  color  of  the 
wood.  The  word  walnut  was  given  in  England,  and  means  "  a  strange  or 
foreign  nut,"  signifying  that  it  came  from  a]>r(»ad.  from  .Anglo-Saxon  ivealk, 
strange,  and  nut. 

Histori/  —  The  black  walnut  has  been  introduced  into  England  and 
southern  Europe  by  seeds  from  America.  It  grows  well  in  England,  but  is 
becoming  very  scarce  in  the  United  States 

U.<>e.  —  The  wood  of  the  l)lack  walnut  is  hard,  very  dark,  and  takes  a  good 
polish  ;  it  is  strong  and  tough,  and  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cabi 


240     ' 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


net  ware,  especially  tables,  bedsteads,  bureaus,  aud  chairs;  also  iu  joiuiug, 
wainscoting,  and  for  floors,  panels,  and  doors.  In  the  southwest  it  is  used 
largely  for  lumber  and  for  fencing.  It  takes  the  place  of  mahogany  with  us 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  cabinet  ware. 

The  fruit  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  dessert,  and  is  used  wheu  in  an  unripe 
state  for  pickles  aud  catsups.  A  good  salad  oil  is  expressed  from  the  kernel, 
and  the  shells  are  used  for  dyeing  purposes. 

3.  J.  regia,  L.  (English  Walnut.)  Stem  20  to  40  feet  in  height,  and  from  10 
to  20  inches  in  diameter  ;  branches  rather  straight,  head  symmetrical ;  leaves 
consisting  of  3  to  5  pairs  of  leaflets,  increasing  in  size  towards  the  top,  termi- 
nating with  a  single  one ;  leaflets  ovate,  acute,  margins  wavy,  on  short  petioles ; 
catkins  oblong,  2  to  2i  inches  long,  peduncle  short.  Fruit  subglobose,  mu- 
crouate,  about  2  inches  in  diameter ;  exocarp  leathery,  smooth,  ovoid ;  shell 
or  endocarp  wrinkled ;  kernel  large  and  sweet. 
Flowers  in  early  summer ;  nut  matures  in 
October. 

Like  other  trees  grown  from  the  seed  it  has 
many  varieties,  the  most  important  of  which 
are :  — 

Var.  maxima  (large  fruited).     Nut  twice  the 

_    ,.«.«^^      ^  size  of  the  J.  regia,  but  perishable. 

^^^**MX  /v^^^^^  ^^^-  tenera   (tender-shelled).      The  shell  is 

thin,  so  that  small  birds  pierce  it  before  it  is 
ripe ;  very  delicate  to  the  taste,  but  not  a  pro- 
lific bearer. 

Var.  serotina.  Endures  the  frost,  and  can 
be  cultivated  in  higher  latitudes  than  the  J. 
regia. 

There  are  many  other  forms,  differing  from 
the  species  only  in  the  size  or  quality  of  the 
fruit. 


JUGLANS    REGIA 

(English  Walnut). 


Geogrophi/.  —  Though  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  temperate  zone, 
the  English  walnut  fruits  iu  a  latitude  of  45°  in  Europe  and  Asia,  aud  grows 
well  in  the  Atlantic  States  of  North  America,  but  does  not  fruit  freely  north 
of  Virginia.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  southern  California.  Its  home  is 
a  region  below  40°,  extending  from  the  country  southea.st  of  the  Black  Sea 
eastward  to  Japan. 

FAymology.  —  The  specific  name,  regia,  is  the  Latin  for  "  royal  "or  "  kingly," 
due  to  the  high  esteem  of  its  quality, 

Hhtorij.  —  Food  plants  necessarily  attracted  the  attention  of  man  in  the 
earlie.st  period  of  his  existence ;  and  nuts,  on  account  of  their  edible  character 
in  an  uncooked  state,  have  always  been  favorites.  At  the  present  day  nuts 
form  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  with  them  the 
walnut  holds  high  rank,  Loudon,  in  his  work  on  trees,  states  that  between 
Heidelberg  and  Darmstadt  the  walnut  is  the  principal  tree,  not  only  for  the 
fruit,  but  for  shade.  In  that  region  when  a  young  farmer  desires  to  marry, 
he  is  obliged  to  furnish  proof  to  the  intended  bride's  father  that  he  has  planted 
with  his  own  hands  a  stated  number  of  walnut  trees,  which  are  already  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  growth. 

Use.  —  In  the  Levant,  where  the  English  walnut  reaches  perfection,  it  con- 
stitutes a  large  portion    of   the  food  of  the  masses.      It  is  highly  prized  iu 


JUGLANDACEv^.. 


241 


Europe  and  America  for  a  dessert  nut.  A  tal)lc  oil  is  expressed  from  it  ; 
aud  ill  a  green  state  it  makes  an  excellent  pickle.  It  is  also  used  to  flavor 
sauces,  aud  is  an  importaut  article  in  the  celebrated  walnut  sauce.  The  wood 
takes  a  good  polish,  has  a  browu  color,  is  riclily  veined,  and  is  highly  prized  by 
cabinet  makers,  rivalling  mahogany.  The  plain  kind  is  used  for  gunstocks. 
The  root  is  guarled,  aud  wlieu  sawed  into  thin  slices  makes  valuable 
veneering. 


HICORIA,  Raf .  (Hickory  Nut.)  Flowers  uni.sexual ;  both  stamiiiate 
and  pistillate  flowers  and  leaf  developed  from  the  same  bud;  the  pis- 
tillate flowers  terminal,  few  in  number ;  bract  small  or  none  ;  bract- 
lets  none  ;  staminate  flowers  in  pendulous  catkins  in  the  axils  of  the 
lower  leaves;  3  on  a  peduncle,  theii-  perianth  irregularly  2-:3-lobed ; 
stamens  3  to  10 ;  pistillate  flowers  shortly  spicate,  few,  with  a  minute 
bract  or  none ;  perianth  enfolding  and  adhering  to  the  ovary,  with  a 
free  4-parted  tip  ;  stigma  sessile  upon  the  ovary,  2-4-lobed.  Husk  or 
outer  shell  of  fruit  fleshy,  4-valved  nut,  somewhat  4-sided,  smooth  or 
slightly  wrinkled.     Flowers  greenish. 

1.  H.  ovata,  Mill.,  Britton.  (Carya  Alba,  Nutt.)  (Shell-bark.  Hickory 
nut.  White  Walnut.)  Stem  from  40  to  60  feet  high,  and  from  1  to  2  feet  iu 
diameter,  rather  regularly  branched,  form- 
ing a  symmetrical  head.  Bark  gray,  and 
falling  in  strips.  Leaves  composed  of  two 
pairs  of  leaflets  aud  a  terminal  one,  lateral 
ones  sessile,  terminal  one  petioled,  all  ob- 
lanceolate,  tlie  lower  pair  smaller,  subacu- 
minate,  sharply  serrulate,  downy  beneath. 
Fruit  flattish,  globose,  with  four  grooves 
extending  along  the  length  of  the  husk, 
which,  when  ripe,  separate  into  four  sections, 
freeing  itself  from  the  nut,  which  is  marked  by  four  seams  or  ridges  exteud- 
ing  lengthwise  ;  shell  thin  ;  kernel  delicate.  Ripens  in  November ;  flowers  in 
April  and  May. 

2.  H.  sulcata,  Britton.  (Carya  sulcata,  Nutt.)  (Thick  Shell-bark.)  This 
species  differs  from  the  last  in*  the  size  of  the  fruit,  which  is  much  larger 
than  tliat  of  the  C.  alba,  and  the  leaf  has  from  3  to  4  pairs,  and  the  nut  has 
an  acuminate  tip ;  in  other  respects  it  is  well  described  in  C  ovata.  A  larger 
tree  than  C.  alba. 

G^0(7rfl/)/H/.  — The  geographical  range  of  these  last  species  is  the  northern 
and  middle  States,  fn^n  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  Kiver,  aud  it  bears 
well  in  corresjionding  latitudes  in  Europe. 

Efijmoloq,/.  —  The  generic  name,  hicoria,  is  of  unknown  origin,  supposed  to 
be  an  aboriginal  name  of  the  tree  or  its  fruit,  proltably  tlie  latter.  The  old 
generic  name,  cart/a,  is  from  the  Greek  word  Koipvov,  the  walnut  tree,  said  to 
have  been  given  in  honor  of  Carya,  daughter  of  Dion,  king  of  Laconia,  who, 
according  to  the  Greek  myth,  was  changed  by  Bacchus  into  that  tree.  The 
specific  name,  ovata,  is  from  the  Latin  ovum,  an  egg.  referring  to  the  shape  of 
a  plane  of  tlie  fruit  parallel  to  tlie  axis  of  growth.  Sulcata,  from  the  Latin 
sulcus,  a  furrow,  derives  its  name  from  markings  (ui  the  fruit. 
Pk.  El.  — 17 


HicoRiA  OVATA  (Hickory  Nut). 


M^ 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


History.  —  The  home  of  these  species  of  hicoria  is  North  America ;  they 
have  been  introduced  by  seed  into  Europe,  where  they  grow  and  fruit  well. 
Seeds  were  first  planted  in  Europe  in  1629.  These  are  the  most  important  of 
the  hickories.  There  are  several  other  species  whose  wood  is  similar,  but 
which  bear  inferior  fruit. 

Use.  —  The  fruit  of  the  H.  ovata  and  H.  sulcata  is  very  delicate,  and  is 
valued  for  a  table  dessert.  The  shell  is  full,  and  the  kernel  sweet.  Both  yield 
an  excellent  salad  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  expression. 

The  wood  splits  easily,  but  is  hard  and  tough,  and  is  used  largely  in  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  instruments,  axe  and  hammer  handles,  and  hubs 
and  spokes  of  carriage-wheels.     It  is  a  very  valuable  material  for  fuel. 

3.  H.  olivseformis,  Nutt.,  Britt.  (Pecan  Nut.)  Stem  80  to  90  feet  high, 
and  from  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter ;  bark  rough  and  shaggy.  Leaves  with  slender 
petioles ;  leaflets  in  6  to  7  pairs,  and  a  terminal  one,  lanceolate-falcate,  acumi- 
nate, and  sharply  serrate,  on  short  petioles. 
Flowers  greenish.  Fruit  oblong,  4-angled, 
with  distinct  valves,  the  green  husk  inclosing 
an  olive-shaped  nut  Avith  a  thin  shell ;  kernel 
fills  the  entire  shell,  and  possesses  a  delicate, 
pleasant  flavor. 

FloM^ers  appear  in  May.    Fruit  ripe,  October 
and  November. 


Hicoria  oliv^foemis  (Pecan  Nut) 


Geography.  —  The  Hicoria  olivseformis  is  in- 
digenous to  southern  North  America,  and  de- 
lights in  a  damp  rich  soil ;  it  will  grow  and 
fruit  in  the  latitudes  south  of  40°,  and  north 
of  20°. 

Etymology.  —  The  specific  name  was  sug- 
gested by  its  shape:  oUvceformls,  olive-shaped. 

History.  —  Nuttall,  the  English  botanist, 
first  described  this  tree,  whose  fruit  Pursh 
It  was  planted  in  Prussia,  and  found  its  way  into  England 


sent  to  Europe, 
in  1766. 

Use.  —  The  pecan  nut  is  a  favorite  dessert  nut,  and  has  become  an  impor- 
tant article  of  commerce.  It  is  shipped  to  the  West  Indies,  also  to  Europe. 
In  its  native  forests  it  is  highly  valued  as  a  mast  upon  which  droves  of  swine 
fatten,  which  are  allowed  to  run  at  large  while  the  nuts  are  falling. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  white,  tough,  and  durable,  and  used  largely  in  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  and,  like  other  species  of  the  genus, 
makes  excellent  fuel.  It  is  characteristic  of  North  America,  no  wood  equally 
tough,  elastic,  and  suitable  for  these  purposes  being  known  in  Europe. 


Order  LII.     CUPULIFERiE. 

Flowers  monoecious  ;  staminate  flowers  in  pendulous,  bractless  cat- 
kins, on  last  year's  branches,  or  at  the  base  of  this  year's  branches ; 
calyx  usually  5,  occasionally  5-12-parted ;  stamens  2-20 ;  anthers 
2-celled.  Pistillate  flowers  solitary  or  clustered,  terminating  few- 
leaved  branches ;  calyx  attached  to  the  ovary,  6-toothed  or  wanting ; 
ovary  2-3-celled;  ovules  1-2  in  a  cell,  pendulous.  Fruit,  a  nut, 
1-seeded  by  abortion,  1-3  in  a  cup  or  shell.     Leaves  alternate,  pin- 


CUPULIFER^. 


243 


persistent,  stij»ulal 
400;    chietly   in 


north    temperate 


nately  veined,  simple,  falling  or  persistent,  stipiilal.-,  with  an  invo- 
lucre of  accurrent  woody  bracts. 

Number  of  genera,  10,    species, 
regions  and  in  tropical  mountains. 

CASTANEA.  Tourn.  (Chestnut.)  Male  flowers  in  clusters  of  long, 
slender,  cylindrical,  erect  aments ;  calyx  G-parted ;  stamens  5  to  15 
in  number.  Fertile  flow^ers  in  3's,  surrounded  by  a  4-lobed  involucre, 
which  when  ripe  is  leathery  and  beset  with  weak  prickles  about  half  an 
inch  long ;  calyx  5-6-lobed,  the  tube  adhering  to  the  8-6-celled  ovary  ; 
Number  of  stigmas  equal  to  the  number  of  cells.  Involucre  4-valved ; 
nuts-  usually  3  in  number,  sometimes  1  ;  when  the  involucre  contains  1 
nut,  it  is  top-shaped ;  when  there  are  2,  the  nuts  are  plane  on  one  side 
and  convex  on  the  other  ;  when  there  are  8,  the  outside  ones  are 
plano-convex,  and  the  middle  one  flattened  into  a  wedge  shape.  The 
nuts  are  from  three  quarters  to  an  inch  in  length,  and  sometimes  as 
wide  as  long.     Covering  shell  thin  and  horny.     Leaves  simple. 

1.  C.  vesca.  Gaert.  (Chestnut.)  Trunk  from  .50  to  70  feet  in  height,  rang- 
ing from  1  to  5  feet  in  diameter,  throwing  out  branches  nearly  horizontal,  which 
extend  20  to  30  feet,  sometimes 

forming  a  liead  50  feet  in  diameter. 
Leaf  oblong-lanceolate  or  oval, 
mucronately  serrate,  glabrous  on 
both  sides.  Flowers  yellowish, 
appearing  in  May.  Fruit  in  Oc- 
tober. 

Var.  Americana  is  the  Ameri- 
can chestnut,  and  differs  from  the 
European  chestnut  only  in  bearing 
a  smaller  and  more  delicate  fruit. 
The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of 
80  feet,  and  when  in  the  forest 
reaches  tlie  lieight  of  40  or  .50  feet 
without  a  branch,  but  when  stand- 
ing alone  branches  low. 

2.  C.  pumila,  Mx.  Stem  6  to 
15  feet  in  height,  branching  low 
and  profuse,  shrub-like  in  appear- 
ance. Leaf  oblong,  ovate,  or  obo- 
vate,  nnicronately  serrate,  hoary, 

tomentose  on  the  under  side,  3  to  5  inches  long  and  about  2  inches  broad, 
smooth  above,  acute  at  the  apex,  and  obtuse  at  the  base ;  petioles  long. 
Flowers  axillary;  nut  solitary,  small,  and  very  sweet. 

In  Europe  great  efforts  liave  been  made  to  improve  the  chestnut ;  and  as  the 
trees  are  produced  from  .^ced,  the  varietie.s  are  numerous.  The  American  tree 
is  believed  to  be  identical  witli  the  F^uropean  Castanea  vulgaris.  Lam.  In 
America  no  efforts  have  been  put  forth  to  improve  the  fruit,  hence  no  varie- 
ties have  arisen. 

Out  of  about  twenty  varieties  grown  in  England,  four  are  considered  as 
greatly  improved.     In   France  also  much  attention   has    been    given  to  the 


Castanea  vesca  (Chestnut)^ 


^44  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

improvement  of  the  chestnut,  and  many  varieties  have  been  produced,  differ- 
ing only  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 

Several  species  of  chestnuts  have  been  found  in  eastern  Asia  recently,  which 
were  formerly  classed  under  the  oaks,  and  there  has  been  a  species  discovered 
in  Nepaul,  northern  India,  recently. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  chestnut  is  very  broad.  It 
grows  well  and  is  indigenous  all  along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America, 
from  40°  to  43°  north  latitude,  extending  west  to  eastern  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee. The  C.  pumila  is  found  between  30°  and  40°  north  latitude,  —  from 
southern  Pennsylvania  to  northern  Georgia.  The  C.  vesca  grows  well  through- 
out the  middle  and  southern  counties  of  England,  in  all  the  countries  of  middle 
and  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa,  and  in  the  countries  of  the  Levant 
and  southern  and  eastern  Asia,  wherever  it  has  been  planted. 

Etymology.  —  Castanea  was  named  for  Castane,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  famous 
for  chestnuts.  Vesca  is  from  the  Latin  vescor,  eat,  referring  to  the  edible 
character  of  the  fruit.  The  common  name,  chestnut,  is  due  to  the  fruit  or  nut 
being  inclosed  in  a  box  or  chest. 

History.  — The  home  of  the  chestnut  is  not  exactly  defined.  De  CandoUe 
says  it  forms  natural  forests  from  the  Caspian  Sea  westward  to  Portugal.  It 
has  also  been  stated  that  its  home  is  the  country  between  the  Black  and 
Mediterranean  seas,  and  that  it  was  carried  west  after  the  Roman  conquests. 
Pickering  says  it  is  native  to  China,  and  Thunberg  saw  it  near  Jeddo,  in 
Japan.  It  is  believed  that  the  Emperor  Tiberius  took  it  to  Italy  from  Asia 
Minor,  and  that  it  thence  spread  all  over  southern  Europe.  It  is  also  indige- 
nous in  North  America. 

There  are  some  very  remarkable  chestnut-trees  in  the  world,  some  of  which 
have  reached  a  greater  diameter  of  trunk  than  any  other  tree.  The  most 
noted  is  the  celebrated  Mount  ^tna  chestnut,  under  which  a  hundred 
mounted  horsemen  took  shelter.  The  enormous  size  of  this  tree  has  led  to 
the  belief  that  it  is  the  union  of  a  group  of  trees  that  stood  near  each  other  in 
their  youth.  M.  Jules  Houel,  a  French  scientist,  nearly  a  hundred  years 
since,  made  a  journey  to  measure  and  make  a  drawing  of  it.  He  found  it  to 
be  1 60  feet  in  circumference,  and  on  the  closest  and  most  careful  examination 
could  find  no  evidence  that  it  is  not  a  single  trunk.  There  are  other  large 
trees  in  the  neighborhood,  measuring  from  36  to  40  feet  in  diameter. 

There  are  three  large  chestnut-trees  in  the  southern  suburb  of  the  city  of 
Yonkers  (just  outside  the  northern  limits  of  New  York  City.)  Two  of  these 
measure  respectively  24  feet  10  inches,  and  19  feet  6  inches  in  circumference. 
These  are  of  the  American  variety,  and  are  in  an  advanced  state  of  decay. 
By  a  calculation  from  the  best  known  data,  the  largest  of  these  trees  is  about 
210  years  old. 

Use. — The  chestnut  is  a  favorite  nut  in  many  parts  of  Europe  ;  and  in  the 
countries  of  the  Levant  it  constitutes  a  very  important  article  of  food.  It  is 
roasted  or  boiled,  and  eaten  with  salt.  It  is  also  eaten  raw.  A  flour  is  made 
of  the  nuts  in  a  dried  state,  which  is  used  for  various  culinary  purposes,  prin- 
cipally for  griddle  cakes. 

The  wood  is  not  hard,  but  is  very  durable,  and  takes  a  high  polish.  It  is 
used  for  cabinet  work,  bedsteads,  tables,  etc.,  and  by  reason  of  its  durable 
character  is  very  highly  valued  for  fencing  material.  It  is  also  a  strong  and 
valuable  timber  for  building  purposes. 

The  nut  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce.  The  best  European  nuts 
come  from  Spain. 


CUFULIFKR^.  245 

QUERCUS,  L.  (Oak.)  Stamiiiate  flowers  in  groups  of  slender 
hanging  catkins;  stamens  5  or  more,  surrounded  by  sepal-like  bracts, 
0  to  S  in  number.  Pistillate  flowers  axillary  and  erect;  ovary  sur- 
rounded by  an  adnate  calyx,  the  limb  of  which  is  toothed;  style 
short ;  stigma  3-lobed  ;  ovary  3-celled,  rarely  4-5,  containing  0  ovules, 
5  of  which  are  abortive.  Fruit  oblong,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
modern  musket-cartridge,  with  the  base  inserted  in  a  cup,  which  is 
clothed  with  imbricated  scales.  F'lowers  greenish,  appearing  in  regions 
of  frost  during  the  month  of  May.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  stipulate, 
deciduous,  but  persistent.  A  few  evergreen  in  the  southern  fringe  of 
the  north  temperate  zone. 

1,  Q.  alba,  L.  (White  Oak.)  Trunk  60  to  80  feet  high,  4  to  5  feet  in 
diameter  ;  bark  grayish-white  ;  much-branched.  Leaves  3  to  5  inches  long, 
sinuatc-lobed,  in  opposite  pairs,  1  to  4  pairs  of  lobes,  with  a  terminal  one ;  lobes 
coarsely  and  irregularly  toothed,  pubescent  underneath ;  acorn  on  short 
peduncles,  large  and  sweet,  edible. 

Var.  pinnatifida,  Mx.  Like  Q.  alba,  except  the  leaves,  which  have  3  to  4 
pairs  of  well  marked  lobes. 

Var.  repanda,  Mx.     Leaves  with  a  wavy  margin. 

Geofjraphjj.  —  The  oak  thrives  best  in  the  temperate  zones,  above  35°,  and 
is  found  in  a  zone  between  30°  and  60°  quite  around  the  globe.  It  is  found 
in  the  mountain-top  as  well  as  in  the  valley  and  the  plain  below,  and  is  indig- 
enous in  tlie  al)0ve-named  parallels  in  both  liemispheres.  The  white  oak  is 
common  in  the  L'uited  States  and  Canada. 

Etymology.  —  Qitercus,  the  generic  name,  is  derived  from  Latin  quercus,  an 
oak.  The  popular  name  of  the  oak  among  the  Celts  was  drew,  from  which  the 
word  Druid  was  derived,  signifying  "  priest  of  the  oak."  Alba,  the  specific 
name  of  this  species,  is  from  the  Latin  alba,  white,  and  is  due  to  the  grayish- 
white  bark  of  the  trunk.  Oak  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  name  of  the 
tree,  dc. 

History. — The  oak  is  famous  in  all  ancient  writings  in  which  trees  are 
mentioned.  Among  the  Gauls  it  was  held  sacred.  Oak  groves  were  the  abodes 
of  priests,  and  no  religious  ceremony  was  complete  without  oak-boughs  or 
oak-leaves.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  dedicated  the  oak  to  their  gods ; 
and  the  Roman  peasants  initiated  the  harvest  by  a  festival,  in  which  their 
heads  were  adorned  with  wreaths  woven  with  the  leaves  of  the  oak.  It  was 
upon  the  oak  that  the  Druid  priests  found  the  mistletoe,  which  figured  so 
largely  in  their  religious  ceremonies. 

Manv  oaks  are  noted  for  liistorical  events.  Less  than  a  hundred  years 
ago  the  oak  was  still  standing  in  tlie  Xew  Forest  against  which  the  arrow 
glanced  that  killed  WiUiam  Rufus.  The  Royal  Oak  at  Boscobel  concealed 
the  person  of  Charles  11.  after  the  di.sastrous  battle  at  Worcester  The  oak 
at  Torwood,  at  the  place  where  Wallace  convened  his  followers,  still  stands. 
xVlfred's  Oak,  at  r)xford,  which  was  in  e.xistence  when  the  university  was 
founded,  may  still  be  seen.  And  in  our  own  country  an  oak  in  the  city  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  concealed  the  charter  of  that  colony,  and  was  known  after 
wards  as  the  Charter  Oak. 

Abraham's  ^)ak  ((^  pseudococcifera),  near  Hebron,  in  Palestine,  is  many  hun- 
dred years  old  ;  it  measures  twenty-three  feet  in  circumference,  and  its  branches 
extend  forty-five  feet  from  the  stem,  forming  a  head  ninety  feet  in  diameter 


246 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Use.  —  The  white  oak  furnishes  a  hard,  durable  timber  for  frames  of  build- 
ings, axles  of  carriages,  floors,  tables,  chairs,  handles  for  axes  and  hammers, 
wainscoting,  panelling,  church  furniture,  shipbuilding,  and  mill-gearing. 
The  bark  is  highly  charged  with  tannin,  and  is  a  valuable  material  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather.  The  fruit  of  the  Q.  alba,  which  is  the  sweetest  of  all 
the  species,  is  excellent  for  fattening  swine ;   the  pork  thus  fatted  is  said  to 

produce  the  most  delicious  bacon. 
The  delicate  flavor  of  the  Vir- 
ginia hams  is  said  to  be  due  to 
the  feeding  of  swine  upon  acorns. 

2.  Q.  robur,  L.  Q.  peduncu- 
lata,  Willd.  (British  Oak.) 
Trunk  50  feet  high  and  upward 
to  100  feet;  when  standing  in 
open  grounds  it  branches  low, 
spreading  out  so  as  to  form  a  head 
whose  diameter  is  greater  than 
the  height ;  branches  crooked, 
gnarled,  and  very  large ;  bark 
gray  and  rough  ;  leaves  on  short 
petioles,  blade  oblong,  made  up 
of  3  to  5  unequal  pairs  of  lobes, 
and  a  terminal  one ;  sinuses  nar- 
row, lobes  rounded.  Fruit  ses- 
sile or  on  long  peduncles,  oblong, 
elongated,  brown,  buried  to  one 
fourth  of  its  length  in  the  hemi- 
spherical cup,  which  is  clothed 
with  rough  imbricated  scales. 
Flowers  greenish-white,  appear- 
ing in  April.  Fruit  ripens  in 
September. 

Like  all  trees  that  propagate 

themselves    by   means    of    their 

seeds,  the  Quercus  robur  has  run  into  a  great  variety  of  forms,  of  which  the 

following  are  the  most  prominent,  and  may  be  found  growing  in  the  public 

grounds  in  Washington:  — 

Var.  sessiliflora. 

Var.  pubescens,  Lodd.     Leaves  downy  beneath. 
Var.  fastigiata,  Lodd.     Branches  compact  and  upright. 
Var.  pendula,  Lodd.     Branches  decidedly  pendulous,  or  weeping. 
Var.   heterophylla,   Loudon.      Leaves  varying  greatly  in  size  and  form  ; 
some  lobed,  others  lanceolate  and  entire. 

Var.  foliis  variegatis,  Lodd.  Leaves  variegated  with  white  and  red  streaks. 
A  beautiful  specimen  is  growing  in  the  public  grounds  at  Washington. 

Var.  purpurea,  Lodd.  Foot-stalks  of  the  leaves  tinged  with  purple,  and  the 
leaves  when  young  entirely  purple. 

There  are  many  other  varieties,  but  less  striking. 

Geography.  —  The  British  oak  is  indigenous  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
most  likely  to  England.  It  grows  in  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Levant,  and 
northern  Africa, 


Quercus  robur  (British  Oak). 


CUPU  LIFERS.  247 

Etymology.  — The  many  names  by  which  the  British  oak  has  been  known  to 
botanists  constitute  not  the  least  of  its  features.  Robur  is  from  the  Latin  word 
robur,  and  indicates  strength  ;  it  is  also  an  old  name  for  the  oak  tree.  Pedun- 
culata  refers  to  the  long  foot-stalks  of  the  fruit.  The  variety  names,  with 
the  exception  of  heterophylla,  are  all  derived  from  the  Latin,  as  follows : 
sess'dijiora,  sessile-Howered  ;  pubesceus,  covered  with  down  ;  fustiyiata,  sloping 
to  a  point ;  pendula,  hanging  down ;  foliis  variegatls,  variegated  leaves  ;  pur- 
purea, purple-colored.  HeterophyUa  is  from  the  Greek  ^repos,  different,  and 
(pvWou,  a  leaf,  hence  varying  leaves. 

History.  —  The  celebrated  character  of  the  British  oak  seems  to  call  for  a 
special  notice.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  specimens  of  this  tree  are 
interesting  for  their  age  and  size.  The  Framlingham  oak,  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  "  Koyal  Sovereign,"  squared  four  feet  nine  inches,  and  yielded 
four  square  beams,  each  forty-four  feet  in  length.  An  oak  felled  at  Whitney 
Park,  Shropshire,  in  England,  in  1697,  was  nine  feet  in  diameter  without  the 
bark,  and  yielded  from  the  trunk  alone  twenty-eight  tons  of  timber.  The 
head  of  this  great  tree  was  one  hundred  and  forty-four  feet  in  diameter. 
Another  English  oak,  in  Holt  Forest,  Hampshire,  measured,  seven  feet  from 
the  ground,  thirty-four  feet  in  circumference.  Another,  at  Newbury,  meas- 
ured forty-five  feet  around.  Still  another,  in  the  vale  of  Gloucester,  was 
fifty-four  feet  in  circumference;  and  one  in  Dorsetshire  gave  a  girth  of 
sixtv-eight  feet. 

IJse.  —  The  wood  of  the  British  oak  is  hard  and  tough,  and  resists  great 
force  without  fracture ;  these  qualities  make  it  rank  very  high  as  a  material 
for  shipbuilding.  Its  acorns  formerly  took  a  high  place  in  European  history 
as  food. 

The  oak  forests  of  central  Europe  furnished  food  for  swine  and  other  do- 
mestic animals,  and  the  people  themselves  subsisted  largely  upon  acorns.  It 
was  reo-arded  as  one  of  William  the  Conqueror's  most  oppressive  acts  that  he 
deprived  the  people  of  England  of  the  use  of  the  oak  forests,  where  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  collect  the  acorns  for  their  swine. 

3.  Q.  bicolor,  WiUd.  (Silver-leaved  Oak.  Swamp  White  Oak.)  Trunk  60 
to  70  feet  high,  4  feet  in  diameter ;  bark  scaly,  and  greeuish-white.  Leaves 
nearly  sessile,  downy,  white  underneath,  bright-green  above  ;  obovate,  coarsely 
and  bluntlv  toothed,'  entire  near  the  base.  Acorns  in  pairs,  peduncles  longer 
than  the  petioles;  nut  long,  dark-brown  ;  cup  shallow,  and  fringed  with  short, 
slender,  thread-like  processes 

Geograph,/.  — It  is  well  distributed  throughout  the  eastern  and  northeast- 
ern United  States. 

Etymo!ogij.  — Bicolor,  the  specific  name  of  this  oak,  is  from  the  Latin  word 
bicolor,  two  colors,  and  refers  to  the  contrast  in  the  colors  of  the  two  sides  of 
the  leaf,  one  of  which  is  a  bright-green,  and  the  other  a  silvery  white.  Sdver- 
leaved  arises  from  the  color  of  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  The  name  stcamp 
ivhite  oak-  is  due  to  its  fondness  for  wet  ground. 

/■/sf.  — The  lumber  is  valuable  for  building  purposes-,  it  is  hard,  durable, 
and  takes  a  good  polish ;  it  also  makes  excellent  fuel  The  bark  is  highly 
charged  wirli  tannin,  but  is  thin,  and  is  not  profitably  obtained  for  markets 
where  thicker  bark  is  available, 

4.  Q.  coccinea.  Wang.  {Scarlet  Oak.)  Trunk  60  to  80  feet  in  height, 
sometimes   4    feet    iu   diameter;    bark  thick,  gray  outside  and   red   within. 


248  DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 

Leaves  divided  into  3  to  4  pairs  of  lobes,  much  like  the  leaves  of  the  Q.  palus- 
tris  ;  petioles  louger  than  in  Q.  rubra,  deep-green,  shining  on  both  sides  ;  lobes 
cut,  toothed  and  acute,  turning  scarlet  with  the  early  frosts.  Acorn  ovate, 
half  buried  in  the  scaly  top-shaped  cup. 

Geography.  —  Indigenous  to  southeastern  North  America;  the  northern 
limit  is  southern  New  England ;  commou  in  the  middle  and  southern  Atlantic 
States. 

Etymology.  —  Cocclnea  is  from  the  Latin  coccineus,  scarlet,  and  has  ref- 
erence to  the  color  of  the  leaves  after  frost. 

Use.  —  The  wood  is  largely  used  for  making  barrels,  and  the  bark  is  a 
favorite  with  tanners.     The  tree  is  also  used  in  planted  grounds. 

Var,  tinctoria.  Gray.  (Black  Oak.  Yellow-barked  Oak.  Dyers'  Oak.) 
Trunk  70  to  100  feet  in  height,  and  3  to  4  feet  in  diameter;  bark  furrowed, 
dark  without,  and  yellow  within.  Leaves  downy  beneath,  obovate,  oblong, 
broad-lobed,  broadest  near  the  end,  sinuses  not  deep,  lobes  coarsely  toothed, 
teeth  pointed.     Acorn  flat,  globose,  half  buried  in  the  fiat,  thick  cup. 

Geography.  —  The  Q.  tinctoria  is  a  native  of  eastern  North  America,  and  is 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  eastern  and  middle  States. 

Etymology.  —  Tinctoria  is  from  the  Latin  tinctor,  a  dyer,  because  the  bark 
furnishes  a  dye.     The  popular  name,  black  oak,  is  due  to  the  color  of  the  bark. 

Use.  —  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  sometimes  used  for  cooperage  and  con- 
struction, and  is  excellent  fuel.  The  bark  is  largely  used  for  dyeing ',  it  yields 
the  querciton,  which  is  much  used  in  calico  printing,  to  give  the  yellow  color 
to  cotton  fabrics.     It  is  also  used  for  tanning. 

5.  Q.  falcata,  Mx.  (Spanish  Oak.  Sickle-leaved  Oak.  Downy-leaved  Oak.) 
Trunk  60  to  70  feet  high,  4  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  thick,  black,  and  fur- 
rowed. Leaves  on  long  petioles,  blade  6  inches  long,  downy  beneath,  obtuse 
at  the  base ;  in  the  northern  limits  of  the  tree  the  leaves  take  on  a  slender  entire 
form,  widening  towards  the  upper  end,  where  they  terminate  in  three  lobes ; 
further  south  the  usual  form  of  the  leaf  is  in  1  to  2  pairs  of  pointed,  mucro- 
nate,  scythe-like  lobes,  entire  or  irregularly  and  coarsely  toothed  sinuses,  deep 
and  wide.     Acorn  globular,  small ;  cuj>  shallow. 

Geography.  —  It  is  native  from  southern  New  Jersey  (where  it  seldom 
attains  a  height  greater  than  40  feet)  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
where  it  grows  to  its  full  size,  60  to  80  feet.  It  is  a  subtropical  tree,  and 
flourishes  best  below  the  parallel  of  35°. 

Etymology.  —  Falcata,  the  specific  name  of  this  tree,  is  from  the  Latin  word 
falcatus,  scythe-like,  from  the  supposed  resemblance  of  the  lobes  of  the  leaves 
to  the  shape  of  a  scythe.  Spanish  oak,  the  common  name,  is  obscure  in  its 
origin  and  meaning. 

Use.  —  The  Spanish  oak  is  a  beautiful,  well-formed  tree,  used  for  ornamental 
purposes.  The  wood  is  an  excellent  fuel.  The  bark  is  highly  charged  with 
tannin,  and  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather. 

6.  Q.  macrocarpa,  Mx,  (Moss-cup  Oak.  Burr  Oak.  Mo.ssy-cup  White 
Oak.)  Trunk  .50  to  70  feet  high,  and  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  l)ranchiug  into 
a  symmetrical  head.  Bark  grayish,  rough,  the  bark  on  the  I)rauches  rough- 
ened by  longitudinal  corky  ridges.  Leaves  downy  beneath,  lyrate,  larger  than 
those  of  any  other  species,  frequently  a  foot  long  and  8  inches  broad,  made  up 
of  3  to  5  pairs  of  lobes  and  a  terminal  one,  the  terminal  lobe  greatly  expanded 
and  notched.     Fruit  larger  than  the  fruit  of  any  other  species  in  America. 


CUPUL1FKK^>.  249 

Acurn  siibglubular,  twu  thirds   inclosed   in  the  cup,  the  oritice  of  which  is 
fringed  with  long,  tiexible,  thread-like  processes. 

Geography.  —  It  is  found  sparingly  in  western  New  England  and  in  New 
York,  but  abounds  in  western  \'irginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  and  west 
and  south. 

Eti/molot/i/.  —  Mncrocarpa,  the  specific  name,  conies  from  tiie  two  Greek 
words  ixaKp6s,  long,  and  Kapwos,  fruit ;  hence,  Icjng-fruited. 

Use.  —  This  oak  is  a  beautiful,  symmetrical  tree,  and  for  that  reas<jn  is  to 
be  found  in  all  large  collections  of  trees  in  planted  grounds. 

The  wooti  is  strong,  tough,  and  duraljle.  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning 
hides.     The  fruit  is  highly  prized  for  food  for  swine. 

7.  Q.  obtusiloba,  Mx.  (Post  Oak.  American  Turkey  Oak.  Iron  Oak. 
Upland  White  Oak.)  Trunk  40  feet  Iiigh,  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter.  Bark 
thin,  grayish-white,  branching  irregularly.  Leaves  leathery,  dark-green  above, 
and  grayish  beneath,  blade  cut  by  deej)  sinuses  into  two  pair.s  of  lobes  and  a 
terminal  one  ;  lobes  rounded.  Acorns  small,  and  deeply  buried  in  the  rough- 
ish  gray  cuj). 

Geognijiliy.  —  It  is  seldom  found  in  the  northeastern  United  States,  but 
abounds  in  tiie  middle  Atlantic  and  southern  and  southwestern  states,  east 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Eti/moiogi/.  —  Obtusiloba  is  due  to  the  blunt,  rounded  lobes  of  the  leaves. 
As  to  the  common  names,  —  iron  oak  alludes  to  the  hardness  and  durability  of 
the  w^ood  ;  turkey  oak  is  so  called  because  turkeys  feed  on  the  acorns ;  upland 
oak  takes  its  name  from  the  localities  where  the  tree  grows  ;  />ost  oak  is  so 
named  because  the  wood  is  u.sed  for  posts. 

Use.  —  The  wood  is  hard  and  durable,  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  much 
used  for  timber  where  exposure  to  the  weather  is  required,  —  especially  for 
bridges,  fence-posts,  and  railroad  ties.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  and  is  used  for 
feeding  swine;  also  turkeys  and  other  poultry. 

8.  Q.  nigra,  L.  (Black  Jack  Oak.  Oak  of  the  Barrens.)  Stem  from  20  to 
30  feet  in  heiglit,  and  6  to  15  inches  in  diameter,  liark  very  dark;  branching 
irregularly  Leaves  on  short  j)etioles,  l)la(le  firm  in  texture,  wedge-shaped, 
sometimes  .{-."j-lobed  ;  lobes  abruptly  pointed  and  terminating  in  spines.  Acorn 
globular,  lialf  covered  by  the  cup.     Not  abundant. 

(jfogrdphi/.  —  Ge(jgraphical  range  is  from  Massachusetts  to  the  southern 
States,  and  west  to  Illinois.  This  tree  is  an  important  feature  in  many  barren 
regions. 

Etymology.  —  Nigra,  the  s|)eciHc  name,  is  from  tiie  Latin  nigrr,  black,  niid 
refers  to  the  color  of  the  bark,  as  does  tiie  common  name. 

'^'^se.  — The  wood  of  this  species  is  too  small  to  l)e  valuable  for  lumber,  but 
makes  excellent  fuel.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tnnnin,  Imt  on  account  of  the  small 
size  of  the  tree,  it  cannot  well  be  olttained  in  large  .piantities,  and  is  but  little 
used. 

9.  Q,  palustris.  l)u  Koy.  (Tin  Oak.  Swamp  Spanish  Oak.  Water  Oak.) 
Trunk  .'iO  to  70  feet  liigb.and  2  to  4  feet  in  diameter,  branching  low  and  form- 
ing a  graceful  head.  Bark  smooth  and  dark.  Leaves  diviiled  into  .3  to  .'>  pairs 
of  lobes,  separated  by  deep,  broad  sinuses,  di.stinguished  from  (}.  rubra  by 
more  narrow  lobes,  and  a  color  and  consistency  more  delicate.  Nut  subglol)ose ; 
cup  flat. 


250  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Geography.  —  It  is  found  growing  in  southern  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
west  in  the  same  latitude  to  the  Mississippi ;  it  is  not  common  in  northern 
New  York  and  New  England. 

Etymology.  —  The  specific  name,  pulustris,  is  from  the  Latin  word  pahistris, 
hoggy,  wet,  marshy,  alluding  to  the  favorite  locality  of  this  species,  Avhich 
is  generally  found  in  wet  places.  This  is  also  indicated  in  the  common 
names  :  swamp  Spanish  oak,  water  oak,  meadow  oak.  The  name  pin  oak 
arises  from  the  circumstance  that  the  knots  are  slender,  and  sometimes  on 
splitting  the  wood  they  draw  out,  appearing  like  pins.  It  on  this  account 
splits  with  diiliculty. 

Use.  —  Q.  palustris  is  used  sparingly  in  planted  grounds  for  ornament.  It 
forms  a  beautiful  head,  and  its  abundant  delicate  foliage  makes  it  a  rival  of 
the  Q.  rubra  as  an  ornamental  tree.  The  lumber  is  coarse  and  poor,  and  not 
as  good  for  fuel  as  the  Q.  rubra.  The  bark  of  this  tree  is  sometimes  used  in 
tanning. 

10.  Q.  Phellos,  L.  (Willow-leaved  Oak  )  Trunk  30  to  60  feet  in  height, 
straight,  10  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  Bark  smooth  and  thick.  Leaves  light- 
green,  about  4  inches  long,  and  1  to  2  inches  wide  ;  linear-lanceolate,  pointed ; 
when  young  toothed ;  light-green.     Acorn  subglobose  ;  cup,  saucer-shaped. 

Var.  sylvatica,  Mx.     Leaves  on  the  young  tree  lobed. 

Var.  latifolius,  Lodd.     Leaves  like  those  of  var.  sylvatica,  but  broader. 

There  are  several  other  forms,  all  shrubs. 

Geography.  —  It  abounds  in  southern  Virginia  and  farther  south,  and  is 
found  in  New  Jersey  as  far  north  as  Monmouth  County.  It  has  been  reported 
as  growing  in  Suffolk  County,  New  York,  in  planted  grounds. 

Etymology.  — Phellos,  the  specific  name  of  this  species,  is  from  the  Greek 
word  (peWos,  a  cork ;  but  why  applied  to  this  8]3gcies  is  not  apparent. 

Use.  —  The  Quercus  phellos  is  a  beautiful  object  in  the  lawn,  and  is  always 
found  in  the  .southern  states  of  the  Ignited  States  in  planted  grounds.  The 
wood  is  soft,  and  not  used  in  building  where  better  lumber  is  obtainable.  The 
bark  is  charged  with  tannin,  but  thus  far  has  not  been  largely  used  by  tanners. 

11.  Q.  Prinus,  L.  (Swamp  Chestnut  Oak.)  Trunk  75  to  90  feet  high,  and 
2  to  3  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  dark-gray,  branching  regularly.  Leaves  on 
long  petioles,  blade  7  to  8  inches  long,  3  to  4  wide,  conspicuously  veined 
beneath,  oblong-ovate  or  elliptical,  coar.sely  and  deeply  crenate  toothed,  resem- 
bling the  leaf  of  the  chestnut.  Acorn  large,  sweet,  oval,  and  brown;  cup 
shallow  and  scaly. 

Geography.  —  The  chestnut  oak  or  chestnut-leaved  oak  is  found  throughout 
the  northern  United  States,  and  as  far  south  as  Virginia,  and  west  to  the 
Mississippi.  It  attains  its  full  size  in  southern  Pennsylvania  and  northern 
Maryland  and  Virginia. 

Etymology.  —  Prinus  is  from  the  Greek  -rrplvos,  ever-green  oak.  .  The  name 
chestnut  oak  is  due  to  the  shape  of  the  leaf,  which  resembles  that  of  the  chestnut. 

Use.  —  The  wood  of  this  tree  splits  easily,  is  hard,  durable,  and  takes  a 
good  polish.  It  is  used  for  frames  of  buildings,  planks,  etc.,  and  is  liighly 
esteemed  for  fuel.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  and  greatly  valued  as  food  for  swine. 
In  Virginia,  southern  Pennsylvania,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Carolinas 
large  droves  of  swine  are  fattened  on  acorns,  principally  of  this  species. 

Var.  acuminata,  Mx.  (Chestnut  Oak.)  Trunk  40  to  70  feet  in  height, 
I  to  2  feet  in  diameter.     Bark  whitish  and  furrowed,  irregularlv  branched. 


CUPU  LIFERS..  251 

Leaves  uii  longisli  petiules,  blade  oblong,  lauceolate,  obtuse  at  the  base,  sharply 
toothed,  green  above  and  pubescent  underneath,  resembling  the  leaf  of  the 
chestnut  tree.  Acorn  egg-shaped,  deeply  set  in  the  hemispherical  cup,  sub- 
sessile. 

Geocjraphi/.  —  It  grows  in  southern  Vermont,  where  it  is  a  second-class  tree. 
It  increases  in  size  southward  to  the  southern  part  of  Virginia,  where  it 
reaches  its  full  height.  It  extends  westward  to  the  Mississippi,  along  the 
ridges  that  trend  through  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 

Et}jmolo(jij.  —  Acuminata  is  Latin  for  pointed,  and  alludes  to  the  sharp- 
pointed  leaves. 

Use.  —  The  wood  of  this  variety  is  hard  and  durable,  making  timber  that 
endures  tlie  weather,  and  it  is  much  used  for  rails  and  shingles.  It  splits 
freely,  and  is  highly  prized  for  fuel.  The  bark  is  well  charged  with  tannin, 
and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  large,  and 
abundant,  and  is  used  for  fattening  swine  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
Tennessee. 

Var.  monticola,  Mx.  (Rock  Oak.  Rock  Chestnut  Oak.)  Trunk  30  to  40 
feet  in  height,  the  top  made  up  of  straggling,  irregular  branches,  especially  in 
the  rocky,  hilly  localities,  where  it  is  found  in  the  northern  and  middle  .states 
of  the  LTnited  States.  Leaves  smaller  than  in  Q.  priuus,  much  the  same  in 
form,  but  the  teeth  are  more  regular  and  blunter ;  when  very  young,  covered 
with  a  white  down.  Acorns  in  pairs,  on  short  peduncles,  and  deeply  inserted 
in  the  cup,  which  is  clothed  with  loose  scales. 

Etymology.  —  Monticola  is  from  the  Latin  mons,  a  mountain,  and  cola, 
inhabit,  and  is  due  to  the  localities  in  which  tliis  tree  delights.  It  is  found  on 
rocky  hills  and  mountain  sides,  —  sparingly  in  southern  New  England,  more 
frequently  in  southern  New  York,  commonly  in  southern  Pennsylvania  and 
Virginia.  The  names  rock  oak  and  rock  chestnut  oak  are  also  due  to  the 
localities  of  the  tree,  and  the  latter  to  the  shape  of  the  leaf. 

Use.  — The  bark  of  this  species  is  rich  in  tannin,  and  is  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather.     The  wood  is  excellent  fuel. 

12.  Q.  rubra,  L.  (Red  Oak.)  Trunk  50  to  80  feet  in  height,  and  3  to  5  feet 
in  diameter.  Branches  long  and  spreading.  Bark  smooth,  and  dark  gray. 
Leaves  smooth,  oblong,  divided  into  3  to  4  pairs  of  sharply  toothed,  acute, 
mucronated  loljes,  separated  by  deep  and  rounded  sinuses.  Flowers  greenish- 
white,  appearing  in  ALay.  Nut  ovate ;  cup  flat,  and  saucer-shaped  Ripe  in 
October  The  foliage  varies  considerably  with  the  age  of  the  plant  and  con- 
ditions of  locality  and  .soil. 

Var.  runcinata,  Engl.  Sinuses  shorter;  lobes  more  u])right  ;  fruit  very 
Miuch  smaller ;  cup  top-shaped  at  base. 

Geography.  —  The  Q.  rubra  is  emphatically  an  American  tree,  and  in 
planted  grounds  wiiere  it  has  room  it  forms  one  of  the  mo-st  graceful  objects 
of  the  lawn  .  it  is  not  exceeded  in  l)eauty  by  any  of  the  oaks.  It  grows  through- 
out northeastern  America,  an<l  west  to  the  Mississippi,  an<l  .^^outli  (l.>wn  the 
Mississippi  valley. 

Etymology.  —  The  specific  name  of  this  oak,  rubra,  from  the  Latin  ruber, red. 
was  applied  on  account  of  the  color  of  the  leaf,  whicli  after  the  appearance  of 
frost  turns  a  deep  red  ;  hence  also  the  common  name  red  oak. 

Use.  —  The  tree  is  highly  prized  as  an  ornament  in  planted  grounds.  The 
wood  is  strong,  but  has  a  coarse  grain,  and  does  not  take  a  fine  polish.     It 


252  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

splits  easily,  and  is  valuable  for  barrel  staves ;  it  makes  an  excellent  fuel. 
The  bark  is  prized  by  tanners. 

13.  Q.  virens,  Ait.  (Live  Oak.)  Trunk  40  to  60  feet  in  height,  much 
branched  above,  forming  a  broad,  picturesque  head.  Bark  thick,  very  dark. 
Leaves  subsessile,  blade  thick,  elliptical,  oblong,  varying  in  form,  —  entire, 
lobed,  or  irregularly  toothed,  —  downy  in  star-like  spots  underneath.  Fruit 
peduncled ;  acoru  long,  ovate,  about  one  third  inclosed  in  the  cup. 

Geography.  —  Its  home  is  North  America ;  its  geographical  range  is  narrow. 
It  abounds  in  the  regions  of  the  southern  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  States. 

Etymology.  —  Virens,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Latin  adjective  virens, 
green,  and  is  due  to  the  evergreen  leaves. 

Use.  —  On  account  of  its  great  strength,  it  is  highly  prized  for  use  in  naval 
architecture ;  it  is  also  excellent  fuel.  The  geographical  range  is  so  small, 
and  the  mode  of  lumbering  is  so  wasteful,  that  a  speedy  exhaustion  of  the 
supply  is  to  be  apprehended,  and  legislation  is  suggested  to  protect  the  live 
oak  forests  of  Florida  and  Georgia. 

14.  Q.  suber,  L.  (Cork  Tree.)  Trunk  20  to  35  feet  in  height.  Bark 
spongy  and  cracked.  Leaves  on  short  petioles,  ovate-oblong,  leathery,  re- 
motely dentate,  occasionally  entire,  downy  underneath,  and  evergreen. 
Flowers  greenish- white,  appearing  in  May.  Acoru  long  and  subcylindrical : 
cup  hemispherical,  clothed  with  overlapping  scales. 

The  products  of  the  cork  tree  are  so  valuable  that  the  tree  has  not  only  been 
protected,  but  large  plantations  have  been  made ;  and  as  the  trees  are  raised 
from  seed,  a  number  of  varieties  have  arisen,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
the  following :  — 

Var.  latifolia,  Bauh.     Leaves  broader  than  those  of  the  species. 

Var.  angustifolium,  Bauh.     Leaves  narrow. 

Var.  dentatum.     Leaves  large  and  toothed. 

Geography.  —  The  Quercus  suber  is  indigenous  in  southern  Europe  and 
northern  Africa ;  it  does  not  flourish  north  of  the  middle  of  France. 

Etymologij. — Suher  is  the  old  Latin  name  for  the  cork  tree.  Linnaeus 
placed  it  under  Quercus,  and  made  suher  the  specific  name.  Cork,  the  common 
name,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  cortex,  cork,  and  signifies  the  outer  thick  bark 
between  the  epidermis  and  the  cuticle. 

History.  —  When  cork  was  first  applied  to  its  present  uses  is  not  known. 
The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  its  use  during  the  first  century. 

Preparation.  —  Harvesting  the  bark  is  begun  when  the  tree  is  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  years  old.  Removing  the  cotk  does  not  injure  the  tree  ;  on  the 
contrary  this  is  said  to  be  conducive  to  its  growth.  The  first  crop  is  of  poor 
quality.  The  second  stripping  occurs  ten  years  after  the  first,  but  the  third 
stripping  yields  the  best  bark.  It  is  taken  from  the  tree  by  making  an  incision 
with  a  sharp  instrument  around  the  tree  near  the  base,  just  deep  enough  to 
avoid  wounding  the  liber.  Three  feet  above,  a  parallel  incision  is  made,  and 
so  on  up  to  the  branches,  making  in  all  three  or  at  most  four  incisions.  It  is 
then  slit  vertically  in  widths  convenient  to  handle.  The  pieces  are  then  forced 
off  Avith  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  which  is  introduced  between  the  liber  and  the 
cortex.  It  is  held  over  live  coals  till  the  surface  is  slightly  charred,  to  close 
the  pores.  It  is  then  subjected  to  pressure  to  take  the  curve  out  of  it,  after 
which  it  is  piled  under  cover  to  dry,  and  Avhen  dry  it  is  fit  for  market. 

Use.  —  Cork  is  applied  to  many  uses,  the  most  important  of  which  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  corks  for  bottles,  for  which  purpose  it  is  especially  adapted. 


CUPrLlFER^..  253 

The  Romans  used  it  lor  buoys  for  fisliing-nets  and  aucliors  ;  also  for  life- 
preservers.  Caniillus  wore  oue  when  he  swam  the  Tiber  during  the  siege  of 
Rome  by  the  Gauls.  It  is  used  now  for  the  same  purpose ;  also  for  cushions 
and  mattresses,  and  soles  of  shoes ;  and  it  is  worked  into  a  sort  of  felt  floor- 
cloth, lu  Spain  the  wealthy  line  their  liouses  with  it.  The  ancient  Kgvptians 
used  it  for  making  coffins.  The  wood  is  durable,  but  is  not  largely  used  in  the 
arts.     The  fruit  is  sweet. 

15.  Q.  infectoria,  ( )liv.  ((iall  Oak.)  Stem  4  to  6  feet  high,  much  branched, 
forming  a  straggling  slirub.  Leaves  ovate,  oblong,  and  smooth  on  both  sides, 
pale  beneath,  deeply  toothed.  Fruit  .sessile  ;  nut  elongated,  cylindrical ;  cup 
tes.sellated ;  fruit  appearing  next  year  after  tlie  ai)i)earance  of  the  flowers. 

The  insect  cijnips  quercus  galli  punctures  the  leaves,  and  deposits  its  egga 
in  the  wounds ;  these  wounds  become  tumors,  from  au  eighth  of  an  inch  to 
au  iuch  in  diameter,  subglobular  in  form,  and  armed  with  blunt,  spine-like 
processes.  When  these  tumors  are  dry  and  hardened,  they  constitute  the  nut- 
galls  of  commerce. 

Several  varieties  appear  in  market,  the  principal  of  wliich  are  blue  and 
white.  Tlie  blue  gall  is  gathered  before  the  young  insect  has  gnawed  through, 
and  the  white  afterwards.     The  blue  gall  is  by  far  the  most  valuable. 

Geography.  —  The  gall  oak  is  found  in  all  the  eastern  Mediterranean 
countries,  especially  in  Asia  JMinor  and  northwestern  Syria.  The  best  galls 
come  from  Aleppo. 

Eti/mv/ogy.  —  Infectoria,  the  specific  name  of  this  plant,  is  from  the  Latin 
word  infector,  a  dyer,  alluding  to  the  circumstance  that  its  products  are  used 
in  dyeing. 

Use.  —  The  nut-gall  figures  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  black  ink.  A 
solution  of  copperas,  mixed  with  a  decoction  of  nut-galls,  produces  a  jet-black 
dye.  The  nut-gall  is  also  an  important  article  employed  in  the  tanning  oi 
hides. 

16.  Q.  aegilops,  L.  (^gilops.  Valonia  Oak.)  Trunk  20  to  .50  feet  in 
height,  and  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  grayish,  sprinkled  with  brown 
.spots.  Branches  spreading,  forming  a  hemispherical  head.  Leaves  on  short 
])etioles,  blade  3  inches  in  length,  coriaceous,  ovate,  oblong,  pale-green  above 
and  downy  underneath ;  coarsely  toothed,  teeth  pointed.  P'lowers  greenish- 
white,  appearing  in  May.  Fruit  large,  nearly  inclosed  in  hemisplierical  cups, 
which  are  covered  with  long,  s])rea(ling,  lanceolate  scales. 

Var.  pendula.     Branches  long,  slender,  and  drooping. 
\'ar.  latifolia.     Leaves  broader. 

deographij.  —  It  is  native  in  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  and  abounds 
throughout  Greece  and  the  Grecian  Archipelago  ;  it  is  found  sparingly  in 
Italy,  but  does  not  grow  in  middle  or  western  Europe. 

Elymolnqif  and  flLttori/.  —  yEgi lops,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Greek 
at^,  alySs,  a  goat,  and  6\f/,  the  eye,  goat'.s-eye,  due  to  the  circumstance  that  au 
infusion  of  the  shells  of  the  half-grown  fruit  is  used  as  a  remedy  for  the 
disease  of  the  eye  known  as  goat's-rijf,  thus  named  ltecau.se  goats  are  attiicted 
with  it.     This  tree  was  known  to  Dio.scorides  and  to  the  ancient  (ireeks. 

Use.  —  The  fruit  of  this  oak  formerly  constituted  the  food  for  a  large 
number  of  peojde.  The  shells  or  cups  are  highly  charged  with  tannin,  espe- 
cially when  lialf  grown;  but  on  account  of  the  ex])ense  of  procuring  tliem  in 
au  unripe  state,  they  are  allowed  to  ripeu.     The  shells  of  the  ripe  fruit  are 


254 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY, 


x^:i^  ..rvj^. 


called  valonia,  the  half-ripe  ones  camata,  and  those  gathered  in  a  still  earlier 
state  are  called  camatina.  The  camatina  are  most  highly  charged  with  tannin, 
the  camata  next,  and  the  valonia  least.     Ordinarily  the  tree  is  not  large. 

The  -wood  is  excellent  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  takes  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  durable. 

As  a  dye,  the  shells -of  the  acorns  are  in  great  demand. 

COEYLUS,  Tourn.  (Hazelnut.)  Catkins  of  the  male  flowers  cylin- 
drical. Pistillate  flowers,  with  an  involucre  of  imbricated  scales,  2  in 
number,  attached  at  the  base,  and  fastened  to  the  under  surface  of 
the  bract ;  stamens  inserted  upon  the  scales  near  their  base,  8  in  num- 
ber ;  anthers  tipped  with  beard.  Female  flowers  in  a  flattened,  bud- 
like catkin ;  bracteal  scale  entire  and  ovate ;  calyx  membranous, 
inclosing  the  whole  ovary,  terminating  in  a  short  fringed  tube.  The 
two  stigmas  long  and  filiform.     Fruit,  a  nut,  egg-shaped  and  bony. 

1.  C.  avellana,  L.  (Hazelnut.  Filbert.)  Stem  shrubby,  3  to  5  inches  in 
diameter  near  the  base,  made  up  principally'  of  ramifications,  rising  from  3  to 

8  feet  high.  Leaves  somewhat  round- 
ish, cordate,  acuminate,  and  irregular 
serrate  ;  stipules  lengthened.  Fruit- 
covering  bell-shaped,  ragged  at  the 
margin.    Nut  brown.    Ripe  in  October. 

2.  C.  colurna,  L.  (Constantinople 
Hazelnut.)  Trunk  40  to  50  feet  high, 
12  to  18  inches  in  diameter;  stipules 
lanceolate,  acuminate.  Leaves  as  in 
No.  1.     Fruit  larger  and  longer. 

A  dozen  varieties  are  arranged  under 
these  two,  differing  in  size  and  form  of 
the  fruit  and  leaf. 

3.  C.  rostrata.  Ait.  (Beaked  Hazel- 
nut. )  Stem  much  branched,  forming  a 
straggling  shrub  from  4  to  8  feet  high. 
Leaves  ovate,  irregular,  serrate,  and 
slightly  lobed  ;  stipules  narrow-lanceo- 
late. Fruit-envelope  tubular,  bell-shaped, 
2-parted,  divisions  cut,  toothed.     Fruit 

excellent,  but  smaller  than»the  European  species. 

4.  C.  Americana,  AValt.  (American  Hazelnut.)  Stem  branching,  forming 
a  shrub  like  the  last,  but  somewhat  larger,  3  to  8  feet  high.  Leaf  rounded  at 
the  base,  sometimes  sliglitly  cordate.  Envelope  of  the  fruit  globular,  bell- 
shaped  ;  edges  coarsely  toothed.     Nuts  as  in  the  last. 

The  last  two  species  are  natives  of  North  America,  and  abound  in  thickets 
and  along  fence-rows,  in  the  northern  and  middle  States,  as  far  south  as  Vir- 
ginia. Of  these  there  are  no  varieties.  The  European  varieties  have  doubt- 
less arisen  from  attempts  to  improve  the  fruit  by  cultivation. 

Geography.  — The  hazelnut  grows  well  between  35°  and  55°  latitude  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  but  is  confined  to  the  eastern  parts  of  the  western 
hemisphere,  and  to  the  western  parts  of  the  Old  World. 


CoRYLDS  AVELLANA  (Hazelnut). 


aXTPVUFEUM  255 

J'Jtijmoioyi/. — The  name  Corylus  is  said  to  he  derived  from  the  Greek  Kopus, 
a  helmet,  referriug  to  the  mauuer  in  which  tlie  calyx  enwraps  the  fruit. 
The  specific  name,  avelluna,  is  derived  from  Avelliuo,  the  name  of  a  city  in 
southern  Italy.  Colurna  is  from  the  Greek  words  k6\os,  mutilated,  and  ovpi, 
a  tail,  referring  to  the  lacerated  fringe  of  the  fruit-envelope.  liostrata,  Latin, 
signifies  "  beaked,"  and  refers  to  the  beak-like  extremity  in  which  the  fruit- 
covering  of  this  species  terminates.  The  word  Americana  explains  itself.  The 
common  name,  hazelnut,  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  fidsi/,  a  head-dre.ss,  that  is, 
a  nut  witli  a  head-dress.  Filbert  has  been  regarded  as  a  corruption  of  the 
word  "  full-beard,"  referring  to  the  fringed  envelope. 

History.  — The  history  of  this  plant  is  very  obscure.  It  is  indigenous  to  the 
countries  of  the  Levant.  It  was  originally  brought  into  Italy  from  Pontus, 
and  was  called  by  the  Komans  mix  Pontlca,  which  name  was  changed  in 
process  of  time  into  nux  aveliana,  because  the  plant  was  first  cultivated  near 
the  city  Avellino,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  It  now  grows  all  over  middle, 
southern,  and  western  Europe. 

Use.  —  The  hazelnut  is  a  common  dessert  nut,  and  in  parts  of  western  Asia 
and  Europe  it  constitutes  an  important  article  of  food. 

The  wood  of  the  C.  colurna  is  white,  and  of  a  fine'grain ;  it  is  used  for  hoops 
and  fishing-rods.  The  wood  of  the  other  species  is  wortliless  for  timber.  The 
fruit  is  an  article  of  considerable  economic  and  commercial  importance. 

FAGUS,  L.  (Beech.)  Staniinate  flowers  in  drooping,  globose,  head- 
like catkins,  3  to  4  in  a  gronp  or  head,  accompanied  by  minute 
deciduous  bracts ;  calyx  bell-shaped.  5-7-parted ;  stamens  8-1*2,  and 
sometimes  16  in  number,  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  calyx,  and 
extending  above  its  mouth ;  filaments  slender,  with  2-celled  anthers. 
Pistillate  flowers,  in  groups  of  2  to  6,  usually  in  2's,  inclosed  within  a 
pitcher-shaped  4-lobed  involucre,  made  up  of  a  number  of  scale-like 
processes,  interior  united ;  calyx  with  6  awl-shaped  lobes ;  styles  3  in 
number,  slender.  Fruit,  an  edged,  three-faced  nut,  dark  :  shell  tough  ; 
kernel  white  and  sweet,  edible.  Leaves  simple  and  alternate.  Flowers 
apetalous,  presenting  a  green  hue. 

1.  F.  ferruginea,  Ait.  (American  Beech.)  Stem  40  to  60  feet  high,  and  1  to 3 
feet  in  diameter,  regularly  and  densely  branched,  forming  a  symmetrical  head ; 
bark  ashy-gray,  smooth.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  pointed,  toothed,  veins  extend- 
ing into  the  teeth.  Fruit-covering  armed  with  spreading  and  crooked 
prickles. 

2.  F.  sylvatica,  L.  (Beech  of  Europe.)  Trunk  from  fiO  to  80  feet  high,  2 
to  4  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  ovate,  dentate,  glabrous,  with  margins  cihate. 
Fruit  inclosed  in  a  rough  envelope,  armed  with  blunt  prickles,  otherwi.se  a.s 
F.  ferruginea  Under  this  species  there  are  several  well  marked  varieties  or 
subspecies. 

3.  F.  obliqua,  Mx.  (Oblique-leaved  Beech  )  Leaves  ol)li(iue,  otherwi.se  like 
F.  sylvatica. 

4.  F.  colorata,  DC.  f.     (Cuprea.    Copper  Beech  )     Leaves  copper  colored. 

5.  F.  betuloides.  Mx.  (Birch-leaved  Beech.)  Leaf  like  the  birch,  and  ever- 
green ;  forms  forests  in  Tierra  del  Fuego;  also  native  in  VanDieman's  Land. 


256 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY 


Remarkable  for  the  production  of  an  edible  fungus,  which  appears  on  its 
branches.     There  are  three  other  well  marked  species  in  South  America. 

Geography.  —  The  beech  grows  well  in  the  temperate  zones  up  to  60°  north 
latitude,  and  as  far  south  as  50°,  but  does  not  flourish  in  the  tropics. 

Etymology.  —  Fagus,  the  generic  name,  comes  from  the  Greek  word  cpayeTu, 
eat,  because  the  Greeks  used  the  nuts  for  food.  The  specific  names  are  de- 
rived from  the  Latin:  ferruginea,  iron-wooded;  sylvatica,  from  sylva,  growing 
in  the  woods ;  betuloides,  from  betula,  bircWike  ;  obliqua,  oblique-leaved.  The 
common  name,  beech,  signifies  "eat." 

History.  —  The  beech  was  a  well-known  tree  in  ancient  times,  esteemed  for 
its  fruit  and  for  its  shade  by  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.  Vergil  im- 
mortalized it.  He  describes  Tityrus  in  his  First  Eclogue  as  reclining  beneath 
the  shade  of  a  broad-spreading  beech  tree.  All  the  species  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  gardens  and  planted  grounds  of  Europe. 

Use.  —  The  nut  of  the  beech  in  the  north  of  Europe  is  a  highly  prized 
dessert  nut,  and  constitutes  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants 
of  northeastern  Poland  and  western  Russia.  A  delicate  oil,  rivalling  that  of 
the  olive,  is  obtained  from  it,  which  is  used  for  the  table,  and  also  for  illumi- 
nating purposes,  and  large  droves  of  swine  are  fattened  upon  it. 

The  wood  is  hard,  and  is  prized  for  fuel,  and  used  in  cabinet  ware  for  chairs, 
bedsteads,  screws,  and  wooden  shovels ;  also  for  shoemakers'  lasts.  The 
F.  ferruginea  of  North  America  and  F.  sylvatica  of  Europe  are  the  most 
important  for  ornamental  purposes. 


Order  LIII.    SALICACE^. 

SALIX,  L.     (Willow.)     Catkins  with  entire  imbricated  scales,  sub- 
cylindrical  ;  stamens  1  to  5  or  more,  with  1  to  2  little  glands.     Fertile 

flower,  with  a  little  gland  at 
base  of  ovary;  pistil  stalked 
or  sessile  ;  stigmas  2,  short, 
each  occasionally  2  -  lobed. 
Leaves  simple,  alternate, 
mostly  stipulate,  usually  lan- 
ceolate and  serrate.  Trees 
and  shrubs.  A  large  genus  ; 
170  species. 

\.  S.  Babylonica,  L.  (Weep- 
ing Willow.)  Stem  50  to  70  feet 
high,  branching  low  and  irregu- 
larly ;  young  twigs  slender  and 
weeping.  Leaves  exstipulate, 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  finely  ser- 
rate, glabrous  and  glaucous  be- 


Salix  Babylonica  (Weeping  Willow). 


neath ;    catkins  appearing  with  the  leaves. 
Geography.  —  Western  and  southern  Asia. 

Of  this  species  there  are  three  well  marked  varieties,  as  follows  :  — 
Var,  vulgaris.     Young  shoots  pale-green,  slender,  with  an  annular  or  wing- 
like twist  iust  above  the  axil   of  the   leaf.      Leaves   furnished    with    large 
stipules.     Flowers  appear  in  June. 


SALIC  ACEtE.  257 

Geograpfnj. — This  variety  abouuds  in  the  southern  parts  of  England,  espe- 
cially about  Loudon. 

Var.  Napoleona.  Shoots  reddisli-greeu ;  leaves  as  in  var.  vulgaris,  but 
exstipulate. 

Geof/raphi/.  —  This  variety  is  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  cuttings  carried 
from  England  and  planted  in  St.  Helena.  In  1823  cuttings  were  taken  from 
a  tree  which  stood  near  Napoleon's  grave,  and  plante<l  in  England  ;  from 
these  plantings  cuttings  were  brought  to  America,  and  the  weeping  willows 
of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  agree  in  botanical  characteristics 
with  this  variety. 

Var.  crispa,  syn.  S.  annularis.  (Curled  Willow.  Ring-leaved  Willow.) 
Leaves  lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrate,  glabrous  and  glaucous  underneath, 
curled  into  a  ring. 

Geographij.  —  The  variety  native  to  England  has  been  brought  l)y  nursery- 
men to  America,  and  is  found  frequently  in  planted  grounds  throughout  the 
eastern  United  States. 

Etipnologij.  —  Salix,  the  generic  name  of  the  willow,  is  derived  f r(jm  the  two 
Celtic  word.s,  sal,  near,  and  lis,  water,  due  to  tlie  circumstance  that  it  delights 
in  wet  places.  Willow,  the  common  name,  comes  from  the  Low  German  word 
wichel,  give  way,  or  bend,  and  is  due  to  the  pliancy  of  the  branches.  Babt/- 
lonica,  the  specific  name,  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  Liuuaius  by  the 
following  passage  from  the  137th  Tsalm  :  — 

"  By  the  rivers  of  Babylon  there  we  sat  down ; 
Yea  we  wept  when  we  remembered  Zion ; 
We  hanged  our  harps  upon  the  willows  in  the  midst  thereof." 

Historij.  — Tt  is  generally  believed  that  the  first  tree  of  this  s])ecies  grown 
in  England  was  the  celebrated  Twickenham  tree,  which  has  the  following 
history :  Alexander  Pope,  the  poet,  received  from  the  Levant  a  box  of  fresh 
figs,  packed  in  willow  leaves.  The  poet  noticed  that  tlie  small  twigs  to  which 
the  leaves  were  attached  were  alive,  and  hoping  to  get  a  new  plant,  rooted 
one,  which  grew  into  the  renowned  tree.  Another  account  says  that  the  poet 
was  present  when  a  package  oi  merchandise  from  Spain  was  opened  ;  tlie 
hoops  that  bound  it  were  willow,  one  of  which  Pope  planted,  and  thus  obtained 
the  tree.  This  is  said  to  have  taken  place  in  1730.  Another  date  is  also 
claimed  for  the  advent  of  the  weeping  willow  into  England,  1692,  tliirty-eight 
years  previous.  If  it  was  i)lanted  at  the  earlier  date,  Po])e  couhl  have  had  no 
agency  in  its  planting,  for  he  was  then  in  his  fourth  year. 

In  the  Magazine  of  American  Ilistorv.  it  is  stated  that  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
brought  cuttings  of  the  weeping  willow  to  America,  which  were  planted 
on  the  estate  of  John  P.  Custis,  in  Virginia. 

If  Sir  Henry  Clinton  brought  the  ^first,  ho  could  not  have  brought  the  var. 
Najxjleona,  for  that  was  first  planted  in  England  in  1823,  and  Clinton  came  to 
America  in  177.'),  and  died  in  179').  If  he  brought  the  willow,  it  wa.*j  a  cutting, 
most  likely  from  the  variety  vulgaris,  which  is  very  common  in  England,  and 
not  the  Napoleona,  which  is  the  variety  that  prevails  among  our  nurserymen, 
.  and  has  been  lirought  to  Ainerica  since  1823.  It  cannot  be  true  that  no 
weeping  willows  grew  lu^re  previous  to  1823,  for  it  .«!eems  improl)able  that 
some  of  the  large  willows  should  have  grown  to  the  size  they  have  attained 
in  so  few  years.  In  1848  a  tree  in  a  garden  in  Flushing  measured  14  feet  in 
circumference,  making  it  al)out  4^  feet  in  diameter. 
^.K.  Fl.—  18 


258 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Use.  —  The  weeping  willow  is  used  as  an  ornamental  tree  ;  it  is  a  very  rapid 
grower,  and  forms  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  object  in  planted  grounds.    The 

wood  is  soft  and  light,  and  does 
not  make  valuable  lumber  nor 
good  fuel.  Its  charcoal  is  used 
by  chemists  in  some  blow-pipe 
experiments. 

2.  S.  viminalis,  L.  (Osier  Wil- 
low.) Stem  20  to  30  feet  high, 
slender,  shooting  up  10  to  12 
feet  in  a  single  growing  season. 
Leaves  linear-lanceolate,  acumi- 
nate, sparingly  toothed,  long, 
silky  beneath  ;  stipules  small, 
aments  appearing  before  the 
leaves ;  scales  roundish  and  very 
hairy;  silky  down  on  the  under 
side  of  leaf,  white.  The  shoots 
are  best  for  wicker-work  and 
baskets  when  two  years  old. 

Geography.  —  Native  all  over 
Europe  and  northwestern  Asia; 
grows  easily  from  slips,  and  is 
grown  largely  in  middle  Europe. 

Etymology.  —  Viminalis,  the 
specific  name,  is  from  the  Latin 
viminalia,  an  osier. 

Use.  —  The  osier  willow  is  used 
for  wicker-work,  baskets,  chairs, 
settees,   hoops,  etc.      There  are 
several  other  species  used  for  the  same  purposes. 

The  charcoal  of  willow  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 


Salix  viminalis  (Osier  Willow), 


Order  LIV.    ORCHIDACE-aS. 

Flowers  perfect,  or  imperfect  by  arrest,  terminal,  solitary,  or  in  a 
spike,  raceme,  or  panicle,  bracteate,  occasionally  springing  from  the 
middle  of  a  leaf.  Perianth  superior,  petaloid  irregular,  made  up  of 
6  parts  in  two  series,  free  or  coherent,  persistent  or  falling  ;  the  outer 
whorl  or  sepals  3  in  number,  2  lateral  and  1  inferior,  mostly  superior 
by  torsion  peduncle.  Petals  3,  alternating  with  the  sepals,  the  2  lat- 
eral ones  similar,  the  other  lip-shaped,  mostly  inferior  by  torsion, 
varying  greatly  in  form  and  color,  limb  of  the  lip  3-lobed  or  entire. 
Stamens  usually  1,  opposite  to  the  odd  sepal,  accompanied  by  2  rudi- 
mentary stamens,  adnate  to  the  style  in  gynandrous  columns, 
pollen-grains  often  united  into  masses.  Ovary  inferior,  1-celled,  or 
occasionally  3-celled,  with  3  parietal  placentae.  Capsule  membranous 
or  leathery,  cylindric,  ovoid,  winged,  or  a  dehiscent  pod.  Seeds  small 
and  very  numerous,  testa  crustaceous  and  black.     Perennial  herb, 


ORCHIDACE^. 


259 


terrestrial  or  epiphytic.  Stem  oi-  scape  usually  simple,  cyliiidric  or 
angular.  Leaves  mostly  radical,  those  on  the  stems  close  together  and 
equitant,  alternate  or  opposite  sheathing,  and  glabrous,  cylindrical 
or  linear-lanceolate,  entire  or  eniarginate,  sometimes  cordate;  veins 
usually  parallel. 

Xo.  of  genera,  384  ;  species  5,000  ;  in  warm  and  temperate  regions. 


VANILLA,  Swz.     (Vanilla.)     Calyx  composed  of  3  sepals,  outer  side 
greenish  and  petaloid.     Petals  of  the  same  size  and  similar  to  the 
sepals  ;  lip  entire,  its  claw  adnate  to  the  gynandrous  column,  its  limb 
broad  and  concave  around  the  column. 
Anthers  terminal,  forming  a  sort  of 
lid ;    pollen   granular.      Fruit   a  pod, 
cylindrical,  6  to  10  inches  long,  and 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  fleshy ;  seeds 
numerous,  imbedded  in  a  soft  black 
pulp.     Natives  of   the  tropical  coun- 
tries of  both  hemispheres.     They  are 
lianes,  climbing  over  lofty  trees.  K^ 

1.  V.  aromatica,  Swz.  (Spicy  Vanilla.) 
Stem  4-side(l  climbing,  15  to  30  feet  long, 
epiphytic,  but  not  parasitic,  fastening  itself 
to  the  bark  by  rootlets  given  off  at  every 
node.  Leaves  from  10  to  15  inches  Ion  jr. 
narrow  and  fleshy.    Flowers  greenish. 

2.  V;  planifolia,  Andrews.  (Flat-leaved 
Vanilla.)  Stem  cylindrical  and  slender, 
very  long.  Leaves  alternate,  sessile,  4  to 
6  inches  long,  oval  and  pointed,  sheathing 
at  the  base,  persistent,  dark-green  above, 
paler  underneatli.  Flowers  2  inches  in 
diameter,  pale  yellowish-green,  sessile,  in 
loose  axillai-v  s])ikes,  witli  8  to  10  siiort, 
triangular,  green  bracts.  Perianth  made  up  of  6  fleshy  deciduun.s  leaves,  in 
two  rows.  Ovary  inferior,  2  inches  long,  cylindrical  and  stalk-like,  fleshy  and 
1 -celled.  Fruit  a  Heshy  pod,  5  to  9  indies  long  slender,  filled  witli  small 
black  lens-like  seeds. 

These  two  species  produce  the  vanilla  of  commerce.  It  is  propagated  by 
cuttings;  hence  there  is  little  opportunity  for  sporting,  and  the  number  of 
varieties  is  accordingly  limited  ;  there  are  a  few  varieties  however. 

The  cuttings  are  fastened  to  trees  upon  wliich  they  are  to  grow,  and  the 
fertilization  is  artificial,  by  placing  the  i)ollen  ui)on  the  stigma  with  a  splinter 
of  bamboo,  or  some  other  delicate  instrument. 

Geographji.  —  Vanilla  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  ])lant,  found  native  in 
the  damp,  wooded  districts  of  southern  Mexico,  and  in  the  coast  regions  of 
Vera  Cruz  and  adja<ent  provinces.  It  is  also  cultivated  in  Guatemala. 
Guadaloupe,  Brazil,  .Mauritius,  Bourbon,  Madagascar,  and  Java. 

EtijDioloyi/. —  Vanilln  is  tiie  diminutive  of  the  Spanish  word  vaina,  sheath, 


Vanilla  planifolia  (Vauilla). 


260  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

due  to  the  resemblance  of  the  pod  to  the  sheath  of  a  knife.  Aromatica,  the 
specific  name,  signifies  "  spicy."     Planifolia  means  "  flat-leaved." 

History.  —  Vanilla  is  the  only  orchid  whose  product  is  of  commercial  impor- 
tance. It  is  a  native  chiefly  of  tropical  America,  and  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  Europeans  by  the  Spaniards,  who  found  it  in  use  among  the  Aztecs 
when  they  invaded  Mexico. 

Chemistry.  —  The  flavoring  substance  of  vanilla  is  called  by  chemists  vanil- 
lin.    It  has  been  produced  artificially  in  the  laboratory. 

Preparation.  —  The  best  vanilla  is  the  product  of  the  V.  planifolia.  The 
beans  are  removed  from  the  vine  as  soon  as  they  have  attained  their  full  size, 
but  before  they  are  ripe,  and  are  placed  in  a  situation  that  exposes  them  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun  or  to  artificial  heat,  —  a  part  of  the  time  wrapped  in  cloths, 
and  a  part  of  the  time  exposed.  Under  this  treatment  they  attain  their  aroma 
and  dark  color,  and  are  made  fit  for  the  market.  The  pods  are  fleshy,  flexible, 
compressed  or  cylindrical,  five  to  ten  inches  long,  dark-brown,  slender,  hooked 
at  the  stalk  end,  the  surface  furrowed  lengthwise,  with  a  greasy,  shining 
appearance  when  properly  cured.  After  a  few  months  the  surface  becomes 
covered  with  a  bloom  of  fine  crystals  of  vanillin.  The  pods  are  prepared  for 
market  by  sorting  into  lengths  and  qualities,  tying  up  iu  parcels  of  fifty 
each,  and  packing  the  bundles  in  tin  boxes  that  hold  twenty  to  fifty  pounds 
each,  which  are  then  incased  in  cedar  boxes,  holding  four  to  six  tins. 

Use.  —  Vanilla  was  formerly  used  as  a  medicine  for  stomach  disorders  and 
indigestion.  Its  use  at  present  is  for  flavoring.  It  is  added  to  chocolate,  ice- 
cream, sauces,  syrups  for  soda-Avater,  tobacco,  snuffs,  liquors,  and  perfumery. 


Order  LV.    ZINGIBERACE^. 

Flowers  irregular,  in  a  raceme,  or  a  terminal  or  lateral  bracteate 
panicle.  Perianth  superior,  formed  of  3  to  4  whorls.  Calyx  green, 
3-Ieaved,  imbricate.  Corolla  of  3  imbricated  divisions,  alternating 
with  the  divisions  of  the  calyx,  colored  and  tubular  at  the  base ;  sta- 
mens 1-6.  Ovary  inferior,  1-3-celled  ;  style  sometimes  dilated, 
petal-iike,  straight  or  curved,  sometimes  slender.  Stigma  terminal; 
capsule  1-3-celled.  Seeds  globular  or  angular ;  testa  leathery.  Leaves 
alternate,  simple ;  petioles  sheathing ;  blade  plane  large,  entire,  veins 
extending  from  the  midrib.     Herbs,  frequently  gigantic. 

No.  of  genera,  36  ;  species,  450 ;  in  warm  climates. 

CURCUMA,  L.  Calyx  tubular,  3-toothed.  Corolla  tube  dilated 
upwards;  divisions  of  the  limb  equal;  upper  lip  open.  Filament 
petal-like,  dilated,  fleshy  at  the  top ;  lateral  staminodia  united  with  it 
below,  3-lobed.  Ovary  inferior,  3-celled.  Style  thread-like ;  stigma 
capitate.  Capsule  3-celled  ;  cells  3-valved.  Seeds  numerous,  arillate. 
Root  tuberous  and  palmate,  perennial.  Leaves  herbaceous ;  petioles 
sheathing;  scope  simple.  Flowers  in  a  simple,  erect  spike,  yellow. 
Stemless  herb. 

C.  long-a,  L.  (Turmeric.)  Stem  wanting.  Leaves  sheathing  each  other, 
lanceolate,  a  foot  long,  springing  from  the  crown  of  the  root ;  the  scape  passes 


ZTNGTBEKArETE.  261 

through  tlie  center  of  the  leafy  tuhe  formed   hy  tlie  sheathing  petioles;  scape 
leafy  and  crowned  with  a  simple  sj)ike  of  small  Howers,  creamy  yellow. 

Of  this  genus  there  are  about  twenty-tive  species,  several  of  them  yielding 
arrow-root ;  but  the  C.  louga  is  the  only  one  that  yields  the  coloring-matter 
known  as  curcuma,  or  turmeric. 

Geographij.  —  The  curcuma  is  indigenous  to  the  south  of  Asia  and  the 
Malay  peninsula  ;  it  tlourislie;^  only  in  the  regions  of  no  frost.  It  is  culti- 
vated and  made  an  article  of  ct)mmerce  in  Hindustan,  Cochin  China,  southern 
India,  Bengal,  Java,  and  the  isles  of  the  I'acitic. 

Eti/molof/i/. — Ctu'cu ma,  the  generic  name,  is  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Arabic 
name  /ciirLum,  signifying  "yellow."  Longa,  the  specific  name,  is  Latin,  signi- 
fying "  long,"  and  refers  to  the  length  of  the  scape  The  connnon  name, 
turmeric,  is  of  unknown  origin. 

Histury.  —  The  home  of  the  curcuma  is  Farther  India  and  the  Asiatic 
islands.  Where  its  products  were  first  introduced  into  domestic  economy  or 
the  arts  is  not  recorded.  The  drug  was  known  to  the 
people  of  the  countries  of  the  Levant  and  southern 
Europe  prior  to  the  commencement  of  tlie  Ciiristian  era. 
Dioscorides  speaks  of  it  under  the  name  of  Cyperus  In- 
(ficiis ;  and  it  is  believed  to  be  the  "  saffron  "  spoken  of 
in  the  Scriptures. 

Chemistry. —  It  yields  to  tlie  chemist  a  substance  to 
which  the  color  is  due,  called  curcumin  .-  the  aromatic 
taste  and  smell  reside  in  another  substance  known  under 
the  name  of  tnrmerol. 

Use. — The  young  tubers  do  not  contain  a  coloring- 
matter,  and  are  largely  used  for  food  in  the  islands  of 
the  coast  of  Asia  and  in  the  Pacific.     The  voung  root, 
dried  and  reduced  to  a  powder,  is  the  arro^v-root  of  the         Curcuma  lonoa 
East  Indies.     The  pulverized  ripened  root  is  used  prin-  (Turmeric), 

cipally  for  coloring. 

In  India  it  enters  into  curry  powder  and  other  culinary  pre))arations.  Its 
dye  is  not  permanent,  yet  it  is  largely  used. 

The  medicinal  ])roperties  are  stomachic,  slightly  tonic,  and  cordial.  It  is 
used  in  coloring  foods,  medicines,  and  cosmetics.  In  the  East  it  is  made  into 
a  paste  with  oil,  and  used  to  anoint  the  body  at  marriage  festivities. 

Paper  colored  with  turmeric  is  used  for  testing  tlie  presence  of  alkalies  in 
liquids ;  if  alkali  is  present,  the  paper  becomes  brown. 


MARANTA,  Plum.  (Arrowroot.)  Calyx  of  :]  distinct  lanceolafp 
sepals ;  staminodia  petaloid,  united  at  base  with  stamens.  Flower 
perfect,  bracted ;  bracts  under  the  branches  narrow,  appressed; 
corolla  tubular  at  the  base,  curved,  ^  imbricated  divisions  at  the 
limb,  alternating  with  the  sepals. 

M.  arundinacea,  W.  (Arrowroot.)  Stem  2  feet  high,  branched ;  rhizome 
fleshy.  Leaves  lanceolate,  hairy.  Flowers  in  clusters;  2  flowers  on  a  stalk, 
peduncles  short.  Fruit  globular,  (»ne  eiorhth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  rhizomes 
from  10  to  15  inches  long,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  enveloped  by  membrana- 
ceous scales. 


262 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


Geographi/.  —  The  maranta  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plant ;  it  has  been 
found  growing  in  Florida  about  the  28th  parallel. 

Etymologji.  —  The  name  maranta  is  derived  from  Bartholomew  Maranti, 
a  physician  of  Venice ;  and  the  specific  name,  arundinacea,  reed-like,  is  from 
the  Latin  arundo,  a  reed.  The  popular  name,  arroiv-root,  is  said  to  have  been 
applied  to  this  plant  because  of  its  efficacy  in  curing  wounds  inflicted  by 
poisoned  arrows. 

History.  —  When  this  plant  was  introduced  by  civilized  man  into  the  materia 
medica,  or  as  a  food  plant,  is  not  known,  —  evidently  since  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World,  as  it  is  a  native  of  tropical  America. 

Chemistrij.  — 100  parts  of  arrow-root  yield  to  the  chemist  the  following 
substances :  — 

Starch 26. 

Woody  fiber 6. 

Albumen .     .     1.50 

Gummy  extract,  volatile  oil,  and  salts    ...     1. 
Water 65.50 

100.00 

Its  starch-grains  are  convex-elliptical,  approaching  triangular  shape,  nearly 
uniform  in  size.     In  commerce  it  is  frequently  adulterated  with  rice,  flour, 

wheat-starch,  or  potato-starch.     These 
foreign  substances  are  readily  detected 
by  the  microscope. 
r-/        yst=&s  ^^^'  —  '^^^  rhizomas  when  a  year 

old  are  dug  with  instruments  made  of 
German  silver,  and  knives  made  of  the 
same  metal  are  employed  for  remov- 
ing the  scales.  They  are  then  reduced 
to  a  pulp  in  wooden  mortars,  or  by 
the  use  of  a  cylindrical  rasp.  The 
mass  is  placed  in  water,  which  holds 
it  temporarily  in  suspension.  After 
straining  to  remove  the  woody  fiber, 
it  is  repeatedly  stirred,  and  allowed  to 
settle,  the  water  being  afterward  care- 
fully poured  off.  The  starchy  sub- 
stance which  remains  as  a  sediment  is 
s--^;  then  dried,  either  in  the  shade  or  sun- 

light. These  manipulations  are  all 
conducted  with  great  care.  After  dry- 
ing, it  is  reduced  to  powder  or  flour, 
and  is  used  for  puddings,  custards, 
Maranta  arundinacea  (Arrowroot).  ^^^^  Q^her  culinary  preparations.     It  is 

a  favorite  food  for  the  sick-room.  It 
constitutes  the  principal  food  for  the  people  of  many  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries  of  the  New  World.  In  the  West  Indies  it  is  administered  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  poisons. 

Tacca  integrifoUa,  Presl,  and  other  species  of  this  genus  furnish  starchy 
products  which  are  used   as  substitutes  for  arrow-root   in  the  East   Indies. 


zinglberaceyE.  263 

Thorp  are  also  other  plants  whose  roots  yield  starches,  among  which  the  most 
prominent  are:  several  cannas,  as  C  echinus,  C.  glauca,  Kosc,  C.  edulis,  and 
C.  flaccida,  Hose.  These  cannas  are  now  under  cultivation  in  Australia.  The 
C.  glauca  and  C.  coccinia  yield  the  starch  known  in  commerce  as  tons  les  mois. 
The  Englisii  have  also  introduced  the  cultivation  of  arrow-root-yielding  plants 
into  India,  New  South  Wales,  and  Queensland.  But  no  plant  yields  so  much 
and  of  so  good  quality  as  the  maranta  arundinacea. 

ELETTARIA,  Maton.  Calyx  menibranous,  tubular,  short,  and  3-lobed. 
Corolla  cylindrical,  as  long  as  the  calyx  ;  anterior  lobe  oblong,  erect, 
and  concave ;  side  lobes  narrower,  curved  backwards,  slightly  ^-lobed 
or  toothed  ;  lip  obovoid ;  anthers  inserted  on  the  corolla,  sessile  and 
linear.  Ovary  8-celled,  containing  many  ovules.  Style  thread-like  ; 
stigma  rising  a  little  above  the  anthers.  Fruit  globular  or  ovoid; 
seed-vessel  tough,  and  not  opening  when  ripe ;  seed  obovoid  and 
rugose.  Rootstock  thick,  growing  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground.     Perennial. 

E.  cardamomum,  Maton.  Stems  numerous,  smooth,  6  to  12  feet  high. 
Le.aves  sheathing,  alternate,  9  to  12  inches  long,  and  1  to  5  inches  wide, 
elliptical-lanceolate  pointed,  entire,  smooth,  and  dark-green  above,  pale  be- 
neath, with  .strong  midribs ;  foot-stalks  short ;  flower-stalls  starts  from  the 
base  of  the  stem,  prostrate.  Flowers  in  a  panicle ;  calyx  tubular,  toothed  at 
the  margin ;  corolla  funnel-shaped,  border  lipped,  3-lobed,  and  spurred  at  the 
base.     Fruit  a  3-celled  capsule,  many-seeded. 

There  are  five  species  of  this  genus,  all  natives  of  the  tropical  regions  of 
Asia;  but  the  cardamoms  of  commerce  are  from  this  species. 

Geography.  —  The  plant  grows  and  fruits  well  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  to 
5,000  feet  along  the  .southern  coast  of  India ;  but  the  seeds  of  commerce  are 
shipped  from  Madras,  Allepy,  and  Ceylon. 

The  plant  yields  fruit  both  in  a  wild  state  and  under  cultivation.  It  requires 
a  temperature  that  does  not  fall  below  70°  Fahrenheit.  It  flourishes  best  in 
the  mountains  of  Malabar,  at  an  elevation  of  about  4,000  feet,  under  an  annual 
rainfall  of  ten  feet. 

Etymology.  —  Elettaria  is  the  name  of  t\\e  cardamom  plant  in  the  Malabar 
tongtie;  its  meaning  is  not  known.  Cardamom  is  from  the  Greek  KapSd/xccuov, 
a  spice,  believed  to  have  been  applied  first  to  the  elettaria  by  Pliny,  on  account 
of  the  pungent  spice  of  its  seeds.  The  cardamoms  of  commerce  are  known 
under  names  derived  from  the  places  where  they  are  grown  :  the  Malabar, 
Madras,  Allepy,  and  Ceylon. 

Cultivation.  —  The  cultivation  consists  in  clearing  the  forest  in  spots  where 
specimens  of  the  plant  are  found  growing  spontaneously,  and  then  keeping 
the  ground  free  from  weeds  and  underlirush.  The  rhizome  or  underground 
stem  throws  up  from  fifteen  to  twenty  leafy  stems  or  branches.  The  stems 
each  throw  off  four  flowering  stalks  near  the  ground,  upon  which  the  fruit 
finally  appears.  The  plant  fruits  when  four  years  old.  An  acre  yields  about 
twenty -eight  pounds. 

Use. — Tho  medicinal  ])roperties  of  thcsccMls  as  well  as  tlioir  aromatic  char- 
acter are  due  to  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil,  of  whicli  they  yield  three  to  five 
per  cent.     Their  effect  upon  the  human  systom  is  stiinulant,  carminative,  and 


264  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

stomachic.  They  are  used  for  flavoring  sauces  and  for  disguising  unpleasant 
tastes  in  medicinal  mixtures,  and  m  tinctures,  in  confectionery  and  cordials, 
and  they  are  a  well-known  masticatory. 

ZINGIBER,  Adans.  Calyx  membranous,  tubular,  and  short,  3- 
lobed.  Corolla  tubular,  cylindrical,  dilated  above ;  lobes  narrov^', 
inner  ones  incurved,  concave,  lateral  ones  spreading ;  lip  small, 
middle  lobe  longer,  entire  or  bifid.  Anther  on  the  erect  filament 
oblong ;  connective  linear,  or  awl-shaped,  extending  beyond  the 
anther  cells.  Ovary  3-celled,  containing  many  ovules.  Style  thread- 
like ;  stigma  projecting  beyond  the  anther  cells,  sometimes  very 
small  and  globose.  Capsule  oblong  or  globular;  seed-vessel  hard, 
opening  irregularly ;  seed  large  and  oblong.  It  flowers  in  September, 
the  stem  withers  away  by  the  first  of  the  following  January,  and  the 
root  is  harvested  in  February. 

Z.  officinalis,  Rose.  (Ginger.)  The  stem  is  subterranean,  of  the  rhizome 
character ;  the  branches  or  aerial  stems  are  2  to  5  feet  high,  solid,  erect,  with 

imbricated  membranous  sheaths.  Leaves 
lanceolate,  acute,  smooth,  5  to  6  inches  long 
and  1  inch  wide,  alternate,  with  ovate,  acu- 
minate sheaths.  The  scapes  are  terminated 
with  spikes  of  whitish  or  dirty  yellowish 
/         "^tT;      /MMM  flowers,  whose  lips  are  streaked  with  purple, 

and  spotted ;  spikes  bracteate,  oval,  and  ob- 
tuse ;  bracts  yellowish-green,  with  mem- 
branous edges. 

The  roots  or  underground  stems  are  3  to 
4  inches  long,  made  up  of  a  number  of  short 
lobe-like  shoots  or  knobs,  whose  tops  are 
marked  each  with  a  scar,  showing  the  spot 
where  the  stem  grew.  There  are  other  spe- 
cies of  this  genus,  about  twenty  in  all ;  but 
the  officinalis  furnishes  the  ginger  of  com- 
merce. 

Geography.  —  The  ginger  plant  is  tropical, 
or,  strictlv  speaking,  subtropical.     It  is  cul- 

ZiNGiBER  OFFICINALIS  (Ginger).  ^;^.^^^g^  in  southern  Asia,  and  on  the  southern 

slopes  of  the  Himalayas.    It  is  an  important 

crop  in  the  West  Indies,   whither  it  has  been  carried  by  Europeans  from 

southern  Asia.    In  the  same  manner  it  has  found  its  way  to  the  western  coast 

of  Africa,  where  it  is  also  largely  cultivated. 

Etijinologfj.  —  Zingiber,  the  botanic  name,  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  geograph- 
ical, from  the  Island  of  Zanzibar,  where  it  first  became  known  to  Europeans. 
By  others  it  is  believed  to  be  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Sanscrit  word  cringa, 
a  horn,  due  to  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  root  to  a  stag's  horn.  Ginger, 
the  popular  name,  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  zingiber.  Officinalis  is  the  Latin 
for  "useful,"  or  "serviceable." 

Histori/.  —  Ginger  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  was  in  common  use  in  England  before  the  Norman 


ZTNOIBKRACK^..  265 

conquest,  a.  r».  1066.  Whcro  or  wlion  it  was  first  (  ultivatcd  is  not  known.  It 
nuist  have  been  brought  under  cultivation  very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
iVsiatic  peoples,  for  it  is  not  now  known  to  be  growing  in  a  wild  state.  There 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  a  native  of  southern  Asia,  whence  it  has 
been  carried  to  the  western  coast  of  Africa  and  to  the  West  Indies. 

Chemistry,  —  It  yields  to  the  chemist  many  distinct  substances,  among  which 
starch  is  the  largest  in  quantity.  The  pungency  is  due  to  an  oily,  resinous 
principle,  called  f/inyerine.  The  perfume  and  delicate  flavor  reside  in  an  essen- 
tial oil,  wliich  is  entirely  free  from  ])ungency. 

Preparation.  —  There  are  three  varieties  of  the  root  in  American  commerce  : 
tlie  Jamaica,  Cochin,  and  African.  The  Jamaica  and  the  Cochin  are  prepared 
before  they  are  brought  to  market,  by  the  removal  of  the  epidermis,  and  are 
of  a  dull-yellow  or  buff  color.  The  African  root,  or  black  ginger,  is  sent  to 
market  without  preparation,  and  bears  a  dark,  earthy  hue.  The  Jamaica 
ginger  of  the  shops  is  white,  having  been  subjected  to  a  l)lcaching  process, 
and  then  whitewashed.  This  variety  is  preferred  on  account  of  its  fine  flavor 
and  its  light  color.  The  Cociiin  ginger  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  strength, 
and  is  much  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  extract.  The  ground  ginger 
of  the  grocers  is  made  from  the  Airicau  root,  which  produces  a  dull,  brownish- 
yellow  powder. 

Use.  —  As  a  medicine,  ginger  is  stimulant,  carminative,  and  anti-dysjiejitic. 
It  is  used  as  a  tonic  for  flatulency,  a  carminative  in  colic,  and  enters  into  the 
preparation  of  many  medicines  to  assist  their  action.  It  is  an  ever-present 
domestic  remedy.  It  is  an  important  culinary  spice  and  condiment  for  flavor- 
ing pies,  preserves,  cake,  and  aerated  waters,  beers,  and  cordials.  In  China, 
the  root  is  largely  preserved  by  cooking  it  in  syrup.  It  reaches  us  in  stone 
jars  holding  from  a  pint  to  a  half-gallon.  The  Chinese  also  prepare  an 
excellent  candy  by  slicing  the  root  and  cooking  it  in  syrup. 

MUSA,  Plum.  Perianth  attached  to  the  ovary,  'J-lipped  or  2-parted, 
thi'  lo\V(M-  lip  cut  at  the  extremity  in  five  divisions.  Stamens  5,  ovary 
inferior,  o-celled  ;  ovules  numerous.  Styles  thick,  shorter  than  the 
stamens,  .3-6-lobed.  Fruit  oblong,  angled,  and  o-celled,  3-9  inches 
long,  curved,  1^-2  inches  in  diameter.  Seeds  numerous,  in  a  soft, 
fleshy  pulp;  covering  of  the  seed  black.  Flowers  in  an  axillary 
spadix. 

1.  M.  paradisiaca,  L.  (Plantain,  or  Yellow  Banana.)  Stem  herbaceous, 
about  18  feet  high,  sumt,  formed  by  a  succession  of  large  sheathing.  Leaves 
4  to  8  feet  long,  15  to  20  inches  broad,  oblong,  entire.  Flowers  terminal,  in  a 
dense  spike.  2  to  4  feet  in  length,  nodding.  Fruit  .3  to  9  inches  long.  1  to  2 
inches  m  diameter,  .scimitar-shaped,  pale-yellow  when  ripe,  skin  thick  and 
coriaceous,  pulp  sweet  and  delicate  to  the"  ta.ste,  seeds  distril)uted  along  the 
axis  of  growth  in  the  pulj).  Under  cultivation  the  .seeds  seldom  ripen,  but  the 
plant  is  propagated  by  offshoots  at  the  ba.se.  If  left  in  a  state  of  nature, 
the  seed  matures,  and  many  varieties  are  obtained.  There  are  about  thirtv 
varieties  under  cultivation  in  Asia  and  the  Asiatic  i.slands.  of  which  the  M. 
paradisiaca  is  the  j.arent  or  a  fair  type  of  the  numerous  species  and  varieties 
of  the  plantain. 

2.  M.  sapientum.  L  (F^anana.  or  Hed  Rauaua.)  The  de.scription  of  No.  1 
covers  the  characteristics  of  the  M.  sapientum  exactly,  except  that  the  stalk 


266 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


is  marked  with  purple  spots,  and  the  fruit  is  shorter,  more  cylindrical,  of  a 
dark  greenish-red  color,  and  2  to  2^  inches  in  diameter,  and  has  a  more  deli- 
cious taste. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  species,  differing  in  size  and  quality  of  the 
fruit.  It  is  held  by  some  botanists  that  the  species  M.  troglodytarum,  a 
native  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  is  the  parent  of  all  the  cultivated  species  and 

varieties.  But  it  is 
also  held  that  the  M. 
sapientum  answers  all 
the  conditions  of  a 
parent. 

Geographij.  —  The 
geographical  distribu- 
tion of  the  banana  and 
plantain  is  very  wide, 
extending  all  around 
the  globe,  between  38° 
north  latitude  and  35° 
south  latitude.  A 
mean  temperature 
above  64°  Fahrenheit 
is  necessary  to  its  ex- 
istence, and  it  does 
not  fruit  freely  where 
the  temperature  falls 
below  40°.  It  is  found 
in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, China,  Cochin 
China,  and  Hindustan. 
It  grows  in  Australia 
and  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  in  Madagas- 
car, and  on  the  west- 
ern shores  of  Africa. 
It  also  adorns  the  gar- 
dens of  the  Morea,  of 
Sicily,  and  the  south 
of  Spain.  In  the  New 
World  it  is  grown 
in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  Colombia, 
Peru,  northern  Brazil, 
Guiana,  and  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  West  Indies.  Recently  it  has  been  introduced  into  the 
gardens  of  southern  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

Etymologij.  —  The  name  musa  is  said  to  come  from  the  Arabic  mouz.  It  is 
also  said  to  have  been  given  by  Plumier,  a  French  botanist,  in  honor  of  Musa, 
a  celebrated  physician  of  Rome,  who  cured  Augustus  Casar  of  a  disease  which 
had  been  pronounced  by  the  imperial  practitioners  incurable  ;  for  which  ser- 
vice the  emperor  knighted  him.  The  specific  name  sapientum  is  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  in  India  the  leaves  grow  to  a  great  height,  and  its  groves 
were  a  favorite  resort  for  sages  (sapientes),  who  were  accustomed  to  repose 


Musa  pakadisiaca  (Yellow  Banana). 


ZIXGIBERACE^.  267 

under  their  shade  wliilc  partaking  of  the  fruit ;  hence,  the  fruit  of  the  wise. 
The  name  paradlslaca  arises  from  the  story  that  the  banana  of  this  species 
was  the  forbidden  fruit  of  I^aradise.  The  English  or  common  name,  banana, 
is  very  obscure  in  its  origin  as  well  as  its  signitieation,  but  is  supposed  to  be  a 
Portuguese  corruption  of  some  native  name.  'I'he  word  plantain  is  from  the 
Latin  /dantuyo,  applied  on  account  of  its  broad,  spreading  leaf. 

/listori/.  —  Many  things  point  to  Asia  as  the  home  of  the  banana,  vet  it  is 
claimed  that  it  had  reached  the  western  coast  of  JSouth  America  Ijefore  the 
arrival  of  the  Europeans.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  it  is  indigenous  to 
America,  but  the  weight  of  history  makes  it  an  introduced  plant ;  hence  we 
are  constrained  to  reckon  the  banana  among  the  food  plants  of  Asia.  It  was 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  but  is  said  to  have  been  made  known  to 
the  Greeks  by  Alexander's  expedition  iuto  ludia. 

Cultivation.  —  The  banana  has  been  very  properly  pointed  out  as  an 
illustration  of  the  wonderful  fertility  of  tropical  regions.  In  the  temperate 
zones  a  fruit-tree  requires  years  to  mature  fruit ;  but  the  dweller  between  the 
tropics  takes  a  sucker  from  a  banana-plant,  places  it  in  the  soil  on  the  river 
bank,  and  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  gathers  a  crop  of  delicious  fruit. 

Use.  —  The  banana  is  highly  prized  as  a  dessert.  The  natives  of  the  tropics 
slice  and  fry  it ;  it  is  baked  in  ovens,  and  is  dried  and  ground  into  flour,  of 
which  bread  and  cakes  are  made.  Two  intoxicating  drinks  known  as  banana 
tcine  and  banana  beer  are  made  from  the  juice  by  the  Africans. 

As  to  the  economic  value  of  the  plantain  and  banana,  they  stand  ne.xt  to 
wheat  and  rice  as  food  plants,  Simmons,  a  recent  English  writer  on  tropical 
food  plants,  says  :  "  The  l)anana  is  to  thousands  of  the  dwellers  of  the  tropics 
what  rice  is  to  the  Hindoo,  rye  to  the  Muscovite,  and  wheat  to  the  English- 
man ;  it  is  their  main  dependance,  in  more  senses  than  one,  their  staff  of  life, 
grown  everywhere  in  small  (juantities  throughout  the  tropics."  Again  he 
says  :  "  Among  the  splendid,  varied,  and  profuse  vegetation  with  which  tropi- 
cal countries  abound,  .  .  .  the  magnificent  herbaceous  plant,  the  plantain, 
attracts  particular  notice." 

The  individuals  of  this  family  rank  high  among  endogenous  herbs.  Tiieir 
gigantic  size,  the  magnificence  of  their  foliage,  the  abundance  and  character 
of  their  fruit,  the  grandeur  of  their  flowers,  give  them  the  very  highest 
place  among  stemless  endogens.  The  banana  is  the  queen  among  ornamental 
herbs,  and  the  household  god  of  the  laborer's  cottage. 

The  structure  of  the  .•^tem  furnishes  a  fiber,  of  which  cordage,  mats,  and  a 
coarse  doth  and  paper  are  manufactured.     See  Mum  tertili.'i. 

The  Chinese  use  the  top  of  the  stem  for  its  juice,  which  also  f4)rms  an  impor- 
tant ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of  ink.  The  pith  of  the  stem  and  the  top 
of  the  spike  and  the  young  shoots  are  edilile.  Humboldt  estimated  that  an 
acre  will  yield  134.900  pounds  of  food.  This  far  exceeds  the  product  of  any 
of  the  tuber-bearing  plants  of  the  temperate  zones. 

3.  M.  textilis.  Xees.  (Manilln  )  This  species  of  musa  is  treated  separately 
because  its  characteristics  are  so  different  from  the  others.  First,  it  is  larger 
than  any  other,  rising  to  the  height  of  30  to  .'lO  feet.  All  tlie  musas  produce 
fiber,  but  the  M.  sapientum,  .M  violacea,  and  M.  textilis  furnish  the  best  (juality. 
and  most  of  it. 

Gencjraphi/.  —  The  musa  textilis  is,  like  the  other  species,  a  tropical  or  sul)- 
tropical  plant.  It  grows  ])est  on  the  slopes  of  volcanic  mountains,  among  the 
larger  trees  that  usually  cover  such  declivities.     The  fiber  of  commerce, 


268  DESCKIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

obtained  from  the  M.  textilis,  thus  far  has  been  grown  in  the  southern  Philip- 
pines. Attempts  have  been  made  to  grow  it  in  other  localities  without 
much  success.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  India  and  other  parts  of  the  south 
of  Asia. 

Etymology.  —  Textilis,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Latin  texo,  weave, 
alluding  to  the  use  made  of  the  fiber  obtained  from  it.  Manilla,  the  popular 
name,  is  due  to  the  seaport  of  that  name,  from  which  most  of  the  fiber  and  its 
products  are  exported. 

History.  —  When  this  plant  was  first  introduced  into  domestic  economy,  or 
when  it  assumed  a  commercial  importance,  is  not  known.  The  first  recorded 
export  was  in  1850,  and  in  1856,  600,000  pounds  were  sent  from  three  ports  in 
the  Philippines,  three  fourths  of  which  came  to  the  United  States.  In  1 880 
45,584,000  pounds  reached  England,  a  large  part  of  which  came  thence  to 
America.  The  amount  used  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is 
applied  are  multiplying. 

Preparation  and  Use.  —  Manilla  is  the  prepared  fiber  of  the  musa.  The 
plant  is  cut  when  eighteen  months  old.  Just  before  it  flowers,  the  leaves  are 
removed  ;  the  stem  is  then  opened  lengthwise,  and  the  flower-stalk,  which 
forms  a  central  column,  is  removed.  From  this,  three  successive  coats  of  fiber 
are  taken.  The  outer  coat  is  the  coarsest,  and  furnishes  the  material  for 
making  ropes,  cordage,  coarse  bags,  and  mats.  The  next  coat  is  of  finer 
texture,  and  is  used  for  manufacturing  cloths  and  paper.  The  third  and 
inner  fiber  is  much  more  delicate  than  the  outer  coatings,  and  of  it  are  made 
the  finest  fabrics,  elegant  shaAvls,  and  material  for  soft  and  delicate  under- 
clothing. Ropes  and  cordage  made  of  the  fiber  of  the  outer  coating  are  one 
fourth  stronger  than  when  made  of  the  best  hemp. 

The  fiber  is  prepared  by  bruising  it  between  rollers  in  a  mill ;  it  is  then 
boiled  in  large  coppers,  —  potash,  soda,  or  lime  having  been  added  to  the  water 
to  remove  the  mucilage.  It  is  taken  from  the  coppers  and  hung  up  over 
manilla  ropes  on  bamboo  poles  to  dry.  It  is  then  beaten  or  combed,  when  it 
is  fit  for  market  or  the  factory.  The  three  different  sorts  are  kept  separate. 
Formerly  the  preparation  was  all  done  by  hand,  but  machinery  is  now 
employed,  which  does  the  work  much  better.  Mixed  with  silk  or  cotton,  it 
makes  a  very  fine  fabric. 


Order  LVI.    BROMELIACE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  usually  regular,  occasionally  irregular,  spiked, 
racemed,  or  panicled.  Perianth  inferior  or  superior,  6-parted,  in  two 
series,  the  outer  series  or  calyx  leaf -like,  one  sometimes  shorter ;  inner 
whorl  or  corolla  petioled,  more  or  less  coherent,  twisted  in  the  bud. 
Stamens  6,  variously  arranged  ;  filaments  subulate,  dilated  at  the  base, 
free  or  connate  ;  anthers  introrse.  Ovary  inferior,  sometimes  supe- 
rior, 3-celled  ;  style  simple,  3-cornered,  occasionally  3-parted  ;  stigmas  3. 
Fruit  a  3-celled  berry,  or  capsule  ;  seeds  numerous.  Leaves  mostly  all 
at  the  base  of  the  stem,  or  scape  ;  sheathing  stiff,  channelled  ;  margin 
armed  with  spines,  or  toothed  ;  epidermis  clothed  with  scale-like  hairs. 
Herbaceous,  and  occasionally  woody  plants,  mostly  without  stems, 
sometimes  epiphytic.     Root  perennial. 

No.  of  principal  genera,  27  ;  species,  350 ;  warm  parts  of  America. 


BROMELIACE^. 


269 


ANANASSA,  Lind.  (Pineapple.)  Inflorescence  densely  strobiliform. 
Calyx  ;}-parte(l ;  petals  3.  Stamens  G;  style  1,  3-parted.  Fruit  a 
spike  of  densely  packed  berries,  and  fleshy  l)racts,  forming  a  conical- 
shaped  body  from  6  to  12  inches  long  and  3  to  6  inches  in  diameter, 
crowned  with  a  tuft  of  leaves. 

A.  sativa,  Sclmlt.  (Pineapple.)  Stem  wanting,  the  flower-stalk  springing 
from  the  midst  of  a  tuft  of  radical  leaves  which  are  larger  than  the  leaves 
that  crown  the  fruit,  armed  with  sharp,  hooked  teeth,  curving  upwards  and 
tipped  with  a  strong,  sharp  spine,  lanceolate  and  fleshy. 

There  are  numerous  native  sports,  iu  a  wild  state.  The  ]>Uiut,  when  not 
under  cultivation,  ripens  seed,  from  which  varieties  are  produced,  which  when 
found  to  be  good  are  brought  under  cultivation. 


Ananassa  sativa  (Pineapple). 


The  principal  varieties  under  cultivation  are  as  follows,  varying  in  size  and 
(piality  of  the  fruit ;  Hipley,  Knville,  Prickly  Cayenne,  Smooth  Cayeuue, 
Providence,  Charlotte  Kothscliild. 

These  are  the  favorite  varieties  grown  in  the  British  West  Indies. 

Geograp/tij.  —  The  cultivation  of  tlie  pinea])i)le  was  at  one  time  confined  to 
one  of  the  islands  of  the  Baliama  group  (Eleuthera),  and  neighboring  islets  ; 
but  it  is  now  spread  to  all  the  tropical  regions  wliere  civilized  man  has  taken 
up  his  abode.  It  is  the  only  important  fruit  which  cannot  l)e  traced  to  Asia 
as  its  home.  Now  the  southern  shores  of  the  T^astern  Continent,  the  fields  of 
eastern  Africa,  the  isles  of  the  Pacific,  as  well  as  the  tropical  regions  of 
.Vmerica,  all  give  place  to  this  interesting  and  delightful  ])roduct.  In  India  il 
has  escaped  from  cultivation,  grows  and  proi)agates  itself  in  the  jungles,  and 
has  liecome  thoroughly  naturalized. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Linnanis  named  the  pineapi)le  Bvomdia,  in  honor  of  <  »laf 
liromel,  a  Swedish  botanist.  IMie  name  ananassa  was  given  by  Thuuberg. 
from  the  Peruvian  name  nana.  Satira,  the  specific  name,  signifies  "  planted," 
or  "sown."  The  names  of  varieties  are  for  the  originators  or  their  friends,  or 
from  some  (pinlitv  of  the  plant.  The  common  nAum,  j>inea^jile,  arose  from  the 
resemblance  of  tlie  fruit  to  pine  cones. 


270 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


History.  —  The  home  of  the  pineapple  is  tropical  America.  It  is  related 
that  the  Spaniards  found  it  in  Peru  and  took  it  to  the  West  Indies,  whence  it 
was  carried  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  East  Indies.  About  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  it  was  taken  to  Holland  by  Mr.  Le  Count,  a  Dutch  mer- 
chant, who  cultivated  it  under  glass  at  his  country  seat  near  Leyden.  It  was 
thence  carried  to  England,  where  it  was  successfully  fruited  under  what  is 
known  in  England  as  stove  culture. 

Use.  —  The  pineapple  is  a  most  fragrant  fruit,  and  is  used  for  a  dessert. 
It  is  also  preserved  in  sugar  and  in  brandy,  and  forms  an  important  article  of 
commerce,  both  raw  and  preserved.  At  Nassau,  about  two  million  cans  are 
filled  annually  and  sent  to  the  United  States. 

Propagation.  — The  pineapple  is  propagated  by  suckers  or  by  the  tuft  from 
the  top  of  the  fruit. 

Marts.  —  New  York  is  the  great  mart  for  this  fruit ;  but  it  is  now  carried 
to  Europe,  in  a  crude  state,  by  the  fast  steamers.  It  is  matured  in  England 
under  glass,  and  is  sold  for  ten  times  more  than  the  imported  article. 


Order  LVII.    IRIDACE-^. 

Flowers  perfect,  regular  or  irregular,  terminal  in  a  spike,  corymb,  or 
loose  panicle,  or  solitary,  each  with  2  spathe-like  bracts.  Inflorescence 
with  a  double  subfoliaceous  bract.  Perianth  superior,  petaloid,  tubu- 
lar, 6-parted,  regular  or  bilabiate ;  segments  in  two  series,  equal,  or 
the  inner  whorl  smaller,  dissimilar,  usually  falling  early.     Stamens 

3 ;  filaments  equal,  free ;  anthers 
extrorse.  Oyary  inferior,  3-celled, 
usually  many-ovuled.  Stigmas  3, 
opposite  the  stamens,  or  alternate, 
often  dilated  or  petaloid.  Capsule 
3-cornered  or  lobed,  3-celled.  Seeds 
numerous,  subglobose  or  com- 
pressed, sometimes  winged  ;  testa 
membranous  or  papery,  sometimes 
leathery  or  fleshy.  Leaves  usually 
radical,  equitant,  ensiform  or  linear, 
angular,  entire,  flat  or  longitudi- 
nally folded,  those  on  the  stem 
alternate,  sheathing.  Perennial 
herbs,  with  tuberous  or  bulbous 
rhizome. 
No.  of  genera,  57  ;  species,  700  ;  warm  parts  of  both  hemispheres. 


Crocus  sativus  (Saffron). 


CHOCUS,  L.  Flowers  nearly  sessile,  among  leaves,  tube  long  and 
slender,  the  limb  bell-shaped,  divided  into  6  nearly  equal  segments. 
Stigmas  dilated,  and  colored  at  the  top,  often  fringed ;  capsule  buried 
among  the  radical  leaves.  Rootstock  bulbous,  coating  fibrous  and 
netted. 

C.  sativus,  L.  (Saffron.)  Scape  1  to  3  inches  high.  Leaves  radical, 
linear  ;  margins  revolute,  with  white  furrow  above.     Elower-tube  long,  white, 


DIOSCOKKACE^.  271 

crowned  witli  i>urple  olliptii-al  segments.     Stigmas  long,  emarginate,  red  ur 
deep  orange,  extending  beyond  the  tuhe. 

There  are  many  other  species,  but  the  sativiis  is  the  most  important. 

Geo;/raphij.  —  The  geographical  range  is  tiiroughout  the  southern  parts  of 
the  north  temperate  zone. 

Etyinologji.  —  Crocus,  the  generic  name,  was  given  to  this  plant  by  Theo- 
phrastus,  but  tlie  meaning  is  obscure.  Satlvus  is  Latin  for  "  sown  "  or 
"  cultivated." 

History. — This  plant  was  known  to  the  ancients;  it  is  mentioned  by 
Dioscorides,  Theoi)hrastus,  and  Pliny.  The  Romans  cultivated  it  fur  its  per- 
fume ;  and  in  later  times  it  was  an  important  crop  in  England.  The  parts 
producing  the  dye  are  the  style  and  stigma;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that 
a  single  pound  of  saffron  is  composed  of  the  stigmas  of  200,000  flowers. 

Use.  —  The  medicinal  properties  are  not  important.  It  was  formerlv  admin- 
istered in  infusions  in  a  multitude  of  disorders,  but  especially  to  bring  eruptive 
diseases  to  the  surface.  Modern  practice  has  brought  in  remedies  which  have 
crowded  it  out. 

There  are  two  active  principles  contained  in  saffron  flowers  :  an  oil  to  which 
its  flavoring  and  medicinal  properties  are  due ;  and  a  coloring  substance  which 
furnishes  the  dye. 

As  a  coloring  agent  saffron  is  now  used  to  color  creams  and  biscuits,  and  to 
color  and  flavor  confectionery  and  cordials.  As  a  dye,  it  is  an  important  sub- 
stance. The  dye  is  produced  by  the  presence  of  a  principle  which  the 
chemists  call  polychroite  ;  this  substance,  when  brought  into  contact  with 
different  chemical  reagents,  produces  a  variety  of  beautiful  colors  and  tints. 

Order    LVIII.    DIOSCOREACE^. 

Flowers  dioecious,  small,  inconspicuous,  regular,  in  axillary  racemes 
or  spikes.  Perianth  herbaceous,  petal-like,  in  6  parts,  2  seriate,  equal, 
and  persistent.  Stamens  6,  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  segments  of 
the  perianth  ;  filaments  short,  free.  Ovary  inferior,  3-celled ;  styles  ;3, 
short ;  stigma  blunt  or  2-lobed ;  ovules  1-2  in  each  cell.  Fruit  cap- 
sular, 3-angled  or  winged,  3-celIed  ;  seeds  compressed,  winged.  Leaves 
alternate  or  opposite,  petioled,  simple,  prominently  palminerved. 
entire  or  lobed.  Perennial  herbs,  with  twining  stems;  tuberous, 
fleshy  roots. 

Xo.  of  genera.  8;  species,  160;  chiefly  tropical. 

DI03C0REA,  L.  Flowers  small ;  stamens  6,  at  the  base  of  the  peri- 
anth ;  filaments  awl-shaped.  Styles  of  the  fertile  flowers  '■) ;  cells  of 
the  capsule  usually  2-seeded.  Seeds  margined  by  thin  membrane  ; 
pods  3-angled. 

1.  D.  sativa,  L.  (Yam.)  Stem  long,  slender,  terete,  smooth,  twining  or 
clambering  over  shrubbery.  Leaves  alternate,  broad,  ovate-cordate,  glabrous, 
nerved,  outer  nerves  forked,  margin  sinuate.  Flowers  in  dense,  axillary 
spikes,  greenish-white.     Root  gives  rise  to  large  edible  tubers. 

2.  D.  batatas,  Decaisne.  (Chinese  Yam.)  Stem  very  long,  resembling  that 
of  D.  sativa.     Leaves  opposite,  smooth,  lieart-shaped  or  halbert-shaped,  in  the 


272 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


axils  of  which  bulblets  appear.  The  roots  are  large,  tuberous  processes, 
largest  at  the  bottom,  sometimes  6  feet  loug,  taperiug  from  the  bottom 
(where  they  are  sometimes  8  inches  in  diameter)  to  the  top,  the  crown  be- 
ing an  inch  in  diameter,  the  whole  tuber  sometimes  weighing  40  pounds; 
edible. 

There  are  about  150  species  known  to  botanists.  The  most  important  edible 
species  are  the  D.  sativa  and  D.  batatas,  D.  japonica  and  D.  alata. 

Geography.  —  The  yam  is  tropical  and  subtropical,  though  it  arrives  at 
maturity  in  higher  latitudes ;  but  the  tubers  do  not  reach  perfection  except 

under  a  high  temperature.  The  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  this  genus  is 
a  belt  all  around  the  earth,  between 
the  parallels  of  30°  on  both  sides  of 
the  equator.  Some  of  the  species  are 
indigenous  to  America,  some  to  Africa, 
but  more  to  Asia.  It  is  but  recently 
that  it  has  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion. Its  cultivation  is  confined  prin- 
cipally to  Japan,  the  East  India  Islands, 
and  Siam. 

Etymology.  —  Dioscorea,  the  generic 
name,  was  given  by  Linnagus  in  honor 
of  Dioscorides,  the  Greek  botanist. 
The  specific  name,  sativa,  signifies  the 
"  sown,"  or  "  cultivated,"  plant.  The 
name  batatas  is  supposed  to  signify  "  a 
club,"  referring  to  the  shape  of  the 
tuber,  which  is  small  at  the  upper  end 
and  large  at  the  other.  The  common 
name,  yam,  is  supposed  to  be  of  Afri- 
can origin,  the  meaning  being  un- 
known. 

Use.  —  The  yam  is  used  for  a  table  vegetable,  and  is  prepared  by  boiling, 
baking,  frying,  or  roasting  in  hot  embers.  It  is  also  beaten  into  a  paste  and 
made  into  cakes ;  also  boiled,  mashed,  and  made  into  puddings  and  custards. 
It  constitutes  a  large  portion  of  tlie  food  of  the  savage  and  half -civilized  tribes 
of  Africa  and  Malaysia. 


DiOSCOKEA  SATIVA   (Yam). 


Order  LIX.    LILIACE^. 

Flowens  perfect,  mostly  terminal,  solitary,  racemose  or  spiked. 
Perianth  tubular,  inferior  ;  limb  6-lobed  or  parted,  or  perianth  leaves 
distinct.  Stamens  6,  inserted  on  the  receptacle  or  perianth-tube. 
Ovary  free,  usually  3-celled ;  cells  few  to  many-seeded  ;  style  simple 
or  3-cleft.  Fruit  capsular.  Leaves  simple,  entire,  sheathing  fascicled 
at  the  base,  and  sessile  on  the  stem,  flat  or  channelled.  Herbaceous 
perennials,  sometimes  tree-like  and  woody.  Root  bulbous,  tuberous, 
or  with  a  creeping  rhizome. 

No.  of  genera,  187;  specie>;,  2000;  cosmopolitan;  mostly  in  damp 
places,  but  not  in  the  water. 


LILIAOE^. 


273 


SMILAX,  Tourii.  Flowers  dicecious,  small,  greenish,  axillary  ;  peri- 
anth deciduous,  segments  0,  in  two  series,  outer  ones  broader,  spread- 
ing, sepaloid ;  stamens  equal  to  the  number  of  divisions,  shorter  than 
the  segments  and  inserted  on  their  bases.  Anthers  adnate,  1-celled, 
with  a  cross  partition.  Ovary  superior,  usually  3-celled  ;  stigmas  8, 
spreading,  2  ovules  in  a  cell.  Fruit  a  l)erry,  ghjbose,  G  seeds,  sometimes 
1-celled,  with  1  seed  only.  Leaves  entire,  petioled,  alternate,  palmately 
3-5  veined.     Woody  perennials. 

1.  S.  officinalis,  H.  &  Bonpl.  (Sarsaparilla.)  Stem  woody,  twining,  nearly 
scjuare,  smooth,  with  scattered  spines  or  prickles  ;  slender,  long,  young  shoots, 
witliout  prickles.  Leaves  ovate-oblong,  acute,  corchite,  5  to  7  ])alniately  nerved, 
thick  and  leathery,  very  large,  8  to  12  inches  long,  and  half  as  wide.  Foot-stalks 
an  inch  long,  smooth,  with  tendrils.     Root  with  long,  creeping  rootstocks. 


Stem  prickly,  nearly  square,  climbing 
and  4  to  5  inches  wide,  oblong-ovate, 


2  S.  sarsaparilla,  L.  (Sarsaparilla.) 
by  tendrils.  Leaves  6  to  8  inches  l<^ng, 
deep-green  cuspidate,  subcordate  at 
base,  and  5-nerved.  Flowers  greenish, 
on  long,  fiat,  axillary  peduncles.  Ber- 
ries large,  globose,  1-seeded,  pinkish- 
red  when  ripe,  persistent.  Root  with 
long,  creeping  rhizomes. 

This  species  has  found  its  way  into 
the  southern  United  States,  or  is  native 
there. 

3  S.  medica,  Schlech  et  Cham.  As 
above,  except  that  the  leaves  are  very 
smooth,  prominently  heart-shaped  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  and  ovate 
above. 

This  species  furnishes  the  Mexican 
root. 


4.  S.  papyraceae,  Poir.    Leaves  mem- 

brnnacoous,    ob]oii<X-oval,    blunt,    other-  Smilax  sarsapariuv   (Sarsaparilla). 

wise  as  S.  officinalis. 

This  species  yields  the  root  known  as  the  Para  or  Rio  Xegro  Sarsaparilla. 

Geocjraphfi.  —  The  species  of  smilax  producing  sarsaparilla  are  found  in 
Mexico,  and  in  central  and  northern  South  America. 

Eti/molor/!/.  —  Swilnx  is  from  the  Greek  word  (rfxiK-r},  a  grater,  alluding  to 
tlie  armed  stems.  Officinalis,  the  specific  name,  is  from  the  Latin,  signifying 
"  of  the  shops."  Sarsapnrilia,  the  common  name,  is  from  the  Spanish  zarza, 
a  bramble,  and  pariJJa,  a  little  vine  ;  hence  a  prickly  vine,  or  prickly  little 
vine.  The  specific  name  medicn  is  due  to  the  medical  i)roperties  of  this 
species;  and  papyracea'  indicates  the  membranous  or  paper-like  character  of 
the  loaf. 

flisfon/.  —  Sarsaparilla  was  iMtro(hiced  into  medical  practice  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  attained  a  great  reputation,  which  it  has 
not  been  aide  to  sustain. 

Use.  —  "When  sarsaparilla  first  bocami'  known  to  the  healing  art,  it  claimed 
to  be  specific  in  all  diseases  which  affected  the  blood. 
pR.  Fl.  — 19 


2T4  DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 

Its  effects  upon  the  system  are  alterative,  sudorific,  and  secretive  ;  it  is  used 
for  chronic  rheumatism,  skin  diseases,  and  is  considered  especially  efficacious 
as  a  restorative  after  an  excessive  mercurial  course.  At  the  present  day  it  is 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  patent  medicines,  —  the  regular  physicians 
havdng  found  substitutes  which  they  consider  more  efficaciou.s. 

Marts.  —  It  is  believed  that  the  S.  sarsaparilla  has  the  same  medicinal  prop- 
erties as  the  S  officinalis  ;  but  this  is  disputed,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  root 
which  supplies  the  market  is  from  the  S.  officinalis  only.  Jamaica  sarsaparilla 
is  from  Central  America,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  shipped 
from  Jamaica  to  Europe.  The  cortex  of  the  root  is  red,  and  clothed  with 
short  rootlets ;  it  is  sent  to  market  in  bundles  1 8  inches  long  and  .5  inches  in 
diameter ;  these  are  made  up  into  bales  for  shipment. 

The  North  American  market  is  supplied  with  Honduras  sarsaparilla,  pro- 
cured from  a  species  which  is  not  known  to  botanists,  or  is  not  well  determined  ; 
it  is  shipped  from  Balize  in  large  bales,  made  up  of  small  bundles,  30  inches 
long  and  6  in  diameter,  weighing  3  to  5  pounds  each ;  the  ends  of  the  bales 
being  covered  with  green  raw-hides. 

The  market  of  the  United  States  is  partly  supplied  by  what  is  known  as 
Mexican  sarsaparilla ;  it  is  shipped  from  A'era  Cruz,  and  is  the  root  of  the 
S,  medica.  It  is  a  slender,  shrivelled  root,  done  up  in  large  bundles,  of  300 
pounds  each,  fastened  together  with  ropes. 

Another  sort,  of  very  good  quality,  is  known  as  Eio  Xigro  sarsaparilla, 
which  is  the  root  of  S.  papyracene.  It  is  shipped  at  Para  in  neat  rolls  3  feet 
long  and  1  foot  in  diameter,  bound  together  by  a  vine.  Xearly  all  of  this 
variety  goes  to  Spain  and  Portugal. 

ASPARAGTIS,  L.  Flowers  perfect;  calyx  with  6  equal,  narrow, 
oblong,  petal-like  sepals,  barely  connected  at  the  base,  spreading. 
Stamens  united  near  the  base  ;  anthers  peltate ;  style  short ;  stigmas  3. 
Ovary  3-cornered,  top-shaped,  and  3-celled;  cells  2-seeded.  Leaves 
reduced  to  minute  scales.  Branches  thread-like.  Fruit,  globular 
berry;  seed  angular,  outer  covering  black  and  leathery;  embryo 
curved  and  eccentric.  Root  a  mass  of  long  fleshy  fibers,  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     Perennial  herb. 

A.  officinalis,  L.  (Asparagus  or  Sparrow  Grass.)  Stem  paniculately 
branched,  3  to  4  feet  high,  .starting  from  the  root  in  a  stout  shoot.  Branchlets 
in  fascicles,  thread-like,  bristly,  and  flexible,  from  haK  an  inch  to  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  length,  pale  pea-green.  Flowers  very  small,  axillary  on  the  branches, 
solitary  or  in  twos,  yellowish-green.     Berry  Avith  6  seeds. 

There  are  about  100  species,  but  the  A.  officinalis  is  the  only  one  cultivated 
for  food. 

The  asparagus  is  propagated  from  the  seed,  and  sports.  There  are  many 
varieties;  but  there  are  two  known  to  the  market  gardeners  as  favorites, 
under  the  names  of  red  top  and  green  top.  These  change  in  form  and  size  by 
high  culture. 

Geography. —The  asparagus  grows  in  the  middle  latitudes  of  the  north 
temperate  zone,  is  largely  cultivated  in  England,  Holland,  throughout  central 
Europe,  in  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  sandy  plains  of 
Poland  and  southern  Russia,  about  the  Caspian  Sea.^^^  was  introducedii]*©. 
Hindustan  by  the  English,  and  is  extensively  cultivatedJSb^rf^ :  it  is  hIso  found 


LILIACE^. 


275 


in  Japan,  an<l  lias  a  native  name,  which  seems  to  point  to  its  being  indigeuouR 
to  that  region.  It  grows  ontside  of  cultivation  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  indig- 
enous to  the  countries  of  the  Levant;   was  brought  to  North  America  by 


^^^^ 


Asparagus  officinalis  (Asparagus). 


European  colonists,  where  it  is  under  cultivation,  and  is  a  favorite  table  vege- 
table. It  has  escaped  from  the  garden,  and  is  growing  wild,  especially  along 
the  seacoast. 


Asparagus  officinalis  (Asparaprus). 

Etymoloi] ij .  —  The  name  asparagus  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  (rirapda-aru, 
tear,  alluding  to  the  thorny  character  of   some  of  the  species.     Officinalis, 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 


the  specific  uame,  is  from  the  Latin  officina,  belonging  to  trade,  or  the  market. 
The  common  name,  sparrow  gjxiss,  is  a  corruption  of  asparagus. 

History.  —  Asparagus  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  at  least  two 
thousand  years  ago. 

Use.  —  Asparagus  is  a  very  delicate  vegetable,  and  most  highly  prized  as  a 
pot-herb.  It  is  greatly  improved  by  cultivation,  both  in  size  and  quality.  Its 
tender,  fleshy  shoots  are  the  parts  eaten.  When  boiled  in  a  small  quantity 
of  water  with  a  little  salt,  it  retains  its  natural  delicate  flavor,  which  to  the 
epicure  is  not  improved  by  disguising  sauces.  It  is  also  cut  into  short 
pieces  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  boiled,  and  served  as  green  peas  are. 
Its  medicinal  properties  are  diuretic,  and  it  is  recommended  for  complaints 
of  the  kidneys.  Its  seeds  have  been  used  in  Europe  as  a  substitute  for 
coffee. 


PHORMIXJM,  Forst.  Perianth  incurved,  segments  connate  at  the 
base,  in  a  short,  top-shaped  tube,  the  three  exterior  segments  lanceo- 
late, the  three  interior  sometimes  a  little  longer  and  narrower  at  the 
apex ;  stamens  6,  attached  to  the  base  of  the  tube ;  filaments  thread- 
like ;  anthers  oblong  or  oblong-linear,  erect,  attached  along  their 
backs  to  the  filaments;  filaments  intruding  into  the  anther-cells. 
Ovary  sessile,  oblong,  3-cornered,  and  3-valved ;  style  filiform  ;  stigma 
short,  head-shaped;  ovules  numerous;  capsule  somewhat  leathery, 
3-sided,  cylindrical,  often  strongly  twisted.  Perianth  cylindrical, 
funnel-formed,  united  below.  Leaves  radical,  keeled,  not  fleshy. 
Seeds  oblong,  flattened;  seed-vessel  black,  membranaceous,  sharply 
dilated  at  the  margin,  but  not  properly  winged.     Embryo  long. 

P.  tenax,  L.  (New  Zealand  Flax.)  Rhizome  short,  thick,  radical  fibers 
densely  matted.  Leaves  radical,  3  to  9  feet  long,  narrow,  linear,  sword-shaped, 
leathery,  tenacious,  arranged  a  little  way  up  the  stem  in 
two  rows  on  opposite  sides  for  a  short  distance  from  the 
root.  Scape  leafless  and  branching  above ;  bracts  under 
the  branches,  which  sometimes  fall  off.  Flowers  pedi- 
celed,  in  terminal  panicles,  or  fascicled  with  the  bracts 
along  the  branches,  varied  in  color ;  flower-stalk  jointed 
under  the  flower.  The  seed  matures  in  the  third  year, 
the  stalk  rising  to  the  height  of  16  feet,  when  the  whole 
plant  dies  down,  and  renews  itself  from  its  roots. 

Geography.  —  Its  home  is  New  Zealand,  where  it  was 
applied  by  the  natives  to  the  manufacture  of  clothing, 
cordage,  and  mats  before  the  arrival  of  Europeans.  It 
has  been  introduced  into  southern  Europe  and  northern 
Africa.  It  grows  in  the  open  air  in  the  southern  parts 
of  England  and  of  Ireland  ;  and  is  grown  in  the  United 
States  in  greenhouses. 

Etymology.  —  Phormium    is   from    the    Greek    (pop/j-os, 

wicker-work,  or  a  basket,  in  reference  to  the  use  made  of 

the  fiber  of  the  leaves.     Tenax  is  Latin,  signifying  "  tenacious,"  due  to  the 

strength  of  the  fiber.     New  Zealand  flax,  the  common  name,  indicates  the 

country  where  it  is  found  native. 


Phormium  tenax 
(New  Zealand  Flax) 


LILIACE.K.  277 

Histori/.  —  The  plaut  was  (liscuvered  in  New  Zealand,  and  carried  to  Europe 
by  Captain  Cook  in  1773,  and  described  by  Linnaeus.  It  is  found  wild  and 
also  under  cultivation  in  its  native  country. 

Preparation.  —  The  leaves  are  cut  into  strips,  and  the  outer  green  part 
scraped  off ;  the  tihcrs  are  then  separated  and  kept  straight,  and  are  washed, 
rubbed,  and  bleached  in  the  sun  ;  it  is  then  creamy  white,  and  has  a  silky 
luster.     While  growing,  it  resembles  the  American  agave  or  century -plant. 

Use. —  It  is  used  in  New  Zealand  for  fabrics  for  garments,  and  for  cordage, 
and  enters  into  commerce  as  a  material  for  cordage  and  coarse  bagging.  It  is 
also  used  to  adulterate  the  tiber  of  the  musa  textilis  in  the  manufacture  of 
manilla  cordage. 


ALOE,  L.  Perianth  tubular,  contracted  above,  straight  or  slightly 
curved,  (i-lobed  at  the  summit,  nearly  closed.  Stamens  6,  inserted 
below  the  ovary,  exserted ;  filaments  awl-shaped,  as  long  as  the 
perianth ;  anthers  linear-oblong,  introrse,  3-celIed,  many-ovuled  ;  style 
thread-like ;  stigma  small ;  capsule  leathery,  ovoid  or  oblong ;  seeds 
numerous,  3-angled  or  flattened,  3-winged ;  testa  membranaceous  and 
black.  Leaves  thick,  fleshy,  in  two  or  three  series,  crowded  near  the 
base  of  the  stem,  lanceolate,  ends  curved  down;  margins  dentate; 
teeth  armed  with  spines  ;  scape  terminal.     Flowers  yellowish. 

1.  A.  vulgaris,  Lamarck.  (Aloes.)  Stem  perennial,  2  to  3  feet  high,  6  to  8 
inches  in  diameter,  crowned  with  a  dense  cluster  of  leaves,  bases  wide,  lower 
ones  spreading,  up])er  ones  more  erect,  lanceolate,  thick,  Heshy,  concave 
above,  convex  beneath  ;  margins  toothed  ;  teeth  armed  with  hooked  prickles ; 
surface  of  the  leaf  smooth,  dark  green  or  mottled  ;  scape  either  sim])le  or 
branched,  rising  from  the  crown  of  leaves,  terminated  with  a  slender  spike  of 
flowers  ;  bracts  triangular,  acute,  longer  than  the  jjedicels,  veined,  and  per- 
sistent. Stamens  6,  a  little  longer  than  the  perianth  ;  anthers  small,  oblong. 
Ovary  oblong-oval,  bluntly  triangular,  :?-celled,  double  row  of  ovules  in  each 
cell ;  style  as  long  as  stamens ;  stigma  terminal.  Fruit  oblong-ovoid,  blunt 
capsule,  an  inch  long,  .S-celled  ;  ])ericar])  tliin,  brown,  smooth  ;  seeds  numerous, 
flattened ;  testa  thin  and  membranaceous.  Flowers  yellow,  tinged  with 
green. 

1  A.  socotrina.  Lam.  This  species  differs  from  the  last  in  a  taller  stem, 
which,  as  it  gr(»ws  old,  becomes  forkedly  branched,  with  tufts  of  leaves  at  the 
summits  of  the  branches,  prickles  on  tlie  leaves.  Perianth  an  inch  and  a  half 
long,  red  or  pinkish,  with  greenish-white  tips,  part  of  the  stamens  extending 
beyond  the  perianth. 

8.  A  spicata,  L.  f.  Stem  about  .3  feet  high.  Leaves  enveloping  the  base 
of  the  stem,  curved,  and  then  deflexed,  al)out  2  feet  long,  flat  near  the  base, 
becoming  nearly  cylindrical  near  the  end,  armed  with  strong,  sharp,  tri- 
angular prickles,  with  several  small  ones  at  the  sununit.  Flowers  bright 
orange-yellow.     Stamens  longer  than  perianth  ;  style  longer  than  stamens. 

There  arc  in  all  about  SO  species  of  this  genus,  natives  of  the  hot  regions 
of  the  Old  World.  But  the  aloe  of  connnerce  is  the  product  of  the  species 
above  described,  and  of  others  whose  ))otaiiical  characters  have  not  been  deter- 
mined, and  whose  home  is  not  known. 


278  DESCRIPT'IVE   BOTANY. 

Geography.  — The  aloe  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plaut,  and  may  be  culti- 
vated in  all  regions  of  no  frost.  It  is  found  in  southern  Asia,  Arabia, 
southern  Europe,  and  northern  Africa ;  but  it  abounds  in  south  Africa,  near 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     It  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  British  AVest  Indies. 

Etymology.  —  Aloe,  the  generic  name,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  alloch,  an 
Arabic  word.  The  Greek  for  the  same  is  d\07j ;  and  the  Latin,  aloe,  whose 
figurative  meaning,  "  bitterness,"  seems  to  suit  the  case,  for  the  name  could 
not  be  more  appropriate.  Vulgaris,  the  specific  name,  is  Latin  for  "  common." 
Socotrina  is  from  the  Island  Socotra,  where  it  was  formerly  cultivated.  Spicata, 
Latin  for  "  spike-bearing,"  alludes  to  the  form  of  inflorescence.  Ferox,  Latin 
for  "  wild,"  in  this  case  signifies  "  coarse"  and  "strong." 

History.  —  The  aloe  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  it  was  men- 
tioned during  the  first  century  by  both  Dioscorides  and  Pliny.  Its  home  is 
Asia  and  Africa ;  and  it  has  been  carried  to  the  West  Indies  by  Europeans, 
and  is  cultivated  there. 

Preparation.  —  There  are  three  kinds  of  aloe  known  in  commerce,  namely : 
Cape  aloes,  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  the  aloes  of  Socotra.  The  Cape  aloes  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves  of  A.  spicata  and  A.  ferox,  and  perhaps  other  species.  The 
leaves  are  cut  from  the  plant  and  set  into  vessels  to  drain ;  the  sap,  or  juice, 
is  evaporated  in  iron  vessels  over  a  fire ;  when  reduced  to  a  thick  syrup,  it  is 
poured  into  vessels  to  cool,  in  which  condition  it  is  sent  to  market  in  large 
cases.  At  a  temperature  below  40°  Fahrenheit,  it  is  hard  and  brittle ;  at  a 
higher  temperature,  it  runs  like  pitch.  The  Barbadoes  aloes  is  the  product  of 
the  A.  vulgaris,  which  is  under  cultivation  in  that  island,  and  in  Jamaica. 

The  juice,  or  sap,  having  been  drained  from  the  leaves,  is  stored  in  casks 
until  the  collecting  is  over,  when  it  is  evaporated  in  copper  kettles  to  a  syrup, 
then  poured  into  gourds  holding  from  three  to  seventy  pounds,  and  thus  sent 
to  market.     This  kind  was  first  sold  in  Loudon  in  1693. 

Socotrlne  aloes  is  manufactured  somewhere  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  taken  to 
the  ports  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  thence  to  Zanzibar,  from  which  place  it  is  sent 
to  Bombay,  where  it  is  purified  and  shipped  to  England.  Where  the  plants 
grow  that  yield  it,  or  hoAv  it  is  prepared,  is  not  very  Avell  known,  but  it  is  very 
certain  that  the  drug  does  not  come  from  Socotra. 

Use.  —  Its  medicinal  properties  are,  when  administered  in  small  doses,  stim- 
ulant, tonic,  stouiachic,  and  anti-bilious.  When  taken  in  large  doses,  it  acts 
violently  upon  the  bowels,  producing  drastic  purgation.  It  was  formerly 
extensively  used  in  complaints  of  the  liver. 

In  Africa  cords  and  nets  are  made  of  its  leaf-fiber.  Its  juice  has  been  used 
in  embalming,  and  as  a  varnish  to  protect  against  insects. 

Note.  —  The  aloe  of  the  Bible  is  a  different  plant.  The  reference  made  in 
the  Bible  to  aloe  is  always  to  the  wood,  and  not  to  the  plant ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  resinous  wood  known  to  the  Egyptians  and  Avestern  Asiatics  was  the 
product  of  a  tree  found  in  eastern  Asia,  Aquilaria  Agallocha,  Roxb.,  of  the 
order  Thymeleaceje.  The  wood  is  very  valuable,  mostly  for  its  fragrance  when 
burned.     It  sells  in  Bombay  as  high  as  $3.00  per  pound  for  fine  specimens. 

Okdek  LX.    PALM-aJ. 

Flowers  small,  dioecious  or  monoecious,  seldom  perfect,  sessile  or  on 
short  pedicels  ;  perianth  double,  persistent,  leathery,  formed  of  a  calyx 
and  calyx-like  corolla ;  sepals  3,  distinct  or  coherent ;  petals  o,  usually 


PALM^. 


279 


distinct,  valvate  in  the  bud  of  the  male  flower,  imbricate  in  the  female  ; 
stamens  hypogynous,  or  perigynous,  G  in  two  whorls,  opposite  the 
sepals  and  petals.  Inflorescence  axillary.  Fruit  a  berry  or  drupe, 
with  smooth  or  scaly  epicarp ;  sarcocarp  fleshy,  oily  or  flbrous ;  endo- 
carp  membranous,  fibrous,  woody,  or  bony.  Seed  oblong,  ovoid,  or 
spherical.  Leaves  springing  from  the  terminal  bud,  alternate,  base 
of  petiole  sheathing  the  stem,  petiole  convex  below  ;  blade  pinnate, 
fan-shaped  or  simply  split.  Perennial  woody  plants,  mostly  beautiful 
and  majestic  trees.     Trunks  often  tall  and  slender. 

Xo.  of  genera,  132  ;  species,  1100  ;  tropical  and  subtropical. 

ARECA,  L.  (Betel  Xut.  Feather  Palms.)  Flowers  monoecious,  small, 
numerous,  sessile,  bractless,  spadix  branched.  Staminate  flowers  very 
numerous  ;  calyx  with  3  small  ovate  segments ; 
petals  3,  much  longer  than  the  calyx,  broadly 
ovate,  smooth,  thick,  and  yellow ;  stamens  3-6  ; 
filaments  short,  red,  and  attached  to  the  backs 
of  the  arrow-shaped  anthers.  Pistillate  flowers 
with  a  calyx  of  3  ovate  rigid  sepals ;  petals  3, 
like  the  sepals,  but  thinner.  Ovary  large, 
1-celled,  one  ovule  in  each  cell ;  stigmas  3. 
Fruit  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  containing 
a  single  seed  an  inch  long  and  two  thirds  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  somewhat  in  shape  of  a 
nutmeg,  distinctly  marked  by  a  network  of  red 
veins,  which  penetrate  the  mass  and  give  a 
marbled  appearance  to  the  internal  structure. 
A  tree  produces  about  300  nuts.  Leaves  pin- 
nately  divided. 

A.  catechu,  L.  (Betel  Nut.)  Stem  slender,  40  to 
60  feet  high,  18  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  Fronds 
3  to  4  feet  long,  all  terminal.  Leaflets  numerous 
and  opposite. 

Georji-dphij.  —  The  geography  of  the  areca  is  trop- 
ical and  subtropical.  It  has  spread  tlirough  the 
Sunda  Isles,  the  Philippines,  Cochin  China,  Sumatra, 
and  southern  India,  and  has  names  in  each  of  these 
countries  which  point  to  tlie  probability  that  it  is 
native  to  all  these  localities;  but  there  seems  to  be  insufficient  evidence  to 
locate  its  home  in  any  one  of  them.     It  grows  best  on  plains  and  terraces. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Areca  is  from  «rfc,  the  name  applied  to  the  young  tree  in 
Malabar.  Cutecliu  was  applied  to  this  species  becau.se  it  was  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  yield  the  gum  catechu.  The  fruit  is  called  betel  nut,  because  the  leaf 
of  the  piper  betel  is  used  in  connection  with  it.  Feather  Palm  alludes  to  the 
feathery  appearance  of  the  leaves,  and  is  apphed  to  several  of  the  genera  of 
this  order. 

Histori/.  —  When  the  betel  nut  was  first  used  as  a  masticatory  is  not  known  ; 
it  was  in  use  in  the  East  Indies  when  the  country  became  known  to  Euro- 
peans, and  its  use  upon  state  occasions  dates  l»ack  to  the  iV.urtli  centurv. 


Areca  catkchtt 
(Betel-nut). 


280  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

jjgQ AVhen  the  uut  is  in  an  unripe  state  it  is  cut  into  slices  and  wrapped 

in  the  leaves  of  the  piper  betel,  with  a  little  lime,  and  in  this  condition  it  is 
chewed.  It  affects  the  nervous  system,  somewhat  in  the  same  manner  as  tea, 
coffee,  and  cocoa ;  it  is  stimulant  and  astringent,  and  is  said  to  check  perspi- 
ration and  alleviate  fatigue.  When  used  moderately  it  is  supposed  to  preserve 
the  teeth,  and  to  fasten  tliem  when  loose  in  the  gums ;  but  used  to  exce.ss  it 
destrovs  the  teeth,  causing  them  to  crumble  and  Avaste  away  and  eventually 
it  causes  the  death  of  its  victim.  It  is  of  very  general  use  among  the  inhabi- 
tants of  southeastern  Asia,  extending  to  all  classes,  and  it  is  offered  to  guests 
on  state  and  other  ceremonial  occasions.  It  is  carried  in  a  box,  frequently  of 
gold  or  silver,  or  ornamented  with  precious  stones,  corresponding  to  the  snuff- 
box used  for  tobacco  snuff. 

A  liniment  made  of  the  juice  from  the  leaves,  mixed  with  oil,  is  considered 
a  specific  in  lumbago ;  the  nut  is  also  a  reputed  remedy  for  tape-worm. 

PH(ENIX,  L.  (Feather  Palm.)  Flowers  dicecious,  very  small,  in 
large  clusters,  emerging  from  a  spathe  or  fleshy  shield ;  number  of 
flowers  in  a  spadix  sometimes  reaching  12,000.  Staminate  flowers 
oblong  or  ovoid  ;  calyx  cup-shaped,  3-toothed ;  petals  3,  oblique,  oblong, 
or  ovoid,  slightly  attached  at  base  ;  stamens  6,  sometimes  3-9,  inserted 
on  the  base  of  the  corolla  ;  filaments  awl-shaped  ;  anthers  linear,  oblong, 
erect,  and  attached  to  the  filaments  along  their  backs.  Pistillate 
flowers  with  a  rotund  calyx;  stigma  sessile.  Fruit  oblong,  terete, 
1-seeded.  Pericarp  fleshy  ;  seed  hard,  somewhat  cylindrical,  plane  on 
one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  with  a  groove  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  plane  side,  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  having 
sweet,  nutritious  pulp.     Leaves  all  terminal,  pinnate. 

P.  dactylifera,  L.  (Date  Palm )  Stem  30  to  60  feet  high,  12  to  18  inches 
in  diameter,  scarred  with  the  marks  of  fallen  leaves,  which  are  pinnate,  glau- 
cous, 8  to  10  feet  long;  leaflets  lanceolate,  acuminate,  pinnae  close  together. 
Flowers  in  branching  spadices,  the  main  flower  stem  long,  the  heavy  mass 
of  flowers  causing  it  to  bend  downward,  each  cluster  of  the  female  tree  bearing 
from  150  to  200  dates  ;  each  flower  produces  three,  two  of  which  are  usually 
abortive.     The  fruit  has  a  vinous,  gummy,  sugary  taste. 

There  are  twelve  species  of  the  phoenix,  but  the  only  one  of  importance  as 
a  food  plant  is  the  P.  dactylifera.  The  varieties  of  this  species  are  very  great ; 
it  is  propagated  by  seed  and  sports  freely,  producing  varieties  which  differ 
from  each  other  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 

Geography.  —The  geographical  distribution  of  the  date  is  throughout  the 
hot  and  arid  region  between  15°  and  30°  north  latitude,  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  along  the  fringes  of  the  great  deserts  to  the  river  Indus,  and  on  the 
oases  of  the  Sahara.  It  can  grow  in  a  higher  latitude,  but  refuses  to  ripen  its 
fruit  except  in  a  very  high  temperature.  The  tree  itself  will  live  just  iu  the 
edge  of  the  region  of  no  frost,  but  will  not  fruit,  nor  even  flower.  Somewhere 
in  the  above-named  region  it  had  its  origin,  but  no  naturalist  has  been  able 
to  name  the  spot.  According  to  Loudon,  the  date  derives  its  generic  name. 
Phoenix,  from  the  fact  that  the  best  dates  were  brought  from  Phoenicia.  But 
if  fine  dates  came  from  Phoenicia,  they  must  have  been  carried  there  from 
further  south,  for  the  temperature  of  the  most  soutliern  part  of  Phoenicia  is 
too  low  to  ripen  the  date.     They  may  have  been  taken  from  Arabia  or  from 


VALMJE. 


281 


i^t, 


more  southern  parts  of  Syria,  hy  caravans,  to  the  seaports  of  Syria  in  oarlv 
times,  antl  shipped  there  for  southern  and  western  Eurojje. 

The  date-tree  is  becoming  rare  in  Syria.  It  is  common  near  Acre,  skirting 
the  lagoons  and  crowuing  the  sandhills  which  altound  there.  The  city  of  Pal- 
myra got  its  name  from  this  tree,  which  is  still  ai)Uiidant  in  its  vicinity.  It 
was  the  symbol  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  the  Jews.  It  adorned  the  medals 
of  \'es])asian  and  Titus,  as  emblems  of  the  country.  It  is  now  carefnllv  culti- 
vated near  Jaffa. 

Etymoloijii.  —  The  derivation  of 
Phienix,  the  generic  name,  has  been 
given,  hactfilifcra  is  from  the  (ireek 
hoLKTvKos,  finger,  from  a  fancied  re- 
semblance of  the  fruit  to  the  portion 
of  the  finger  between  the  joints. 
Date,  the  common  name,  is  said  to  be 
a  corruption  of  dactnl,  and  is  also 
claimed  to  be  a  Sanscrit  word  signify- 
ing "  fruit,"  or  "  finger  fruit." 

Historij.  —  The  date  has  been  culti- 
vated as  a  food  plant  since  prehistoric 
times.  The  ancient  Egyptians  under- 
stood the  sexes  of  the  trees,  and  learned 
to  assist  nature  by  taking  the  pollen 
from  the  male  to  the  female  tree. 
Cakes  of  dates  have  been  found  in  the 
tombs  of  Thebes,  one  of  which  is  j)re- 
served  in  the  British  museum.  The 
ancient  Hebrews  must  have  been  ac- 
quainted with  the  date,  though  it  could 
not  have  been  among  the  fruits  of  Pal- 
estine, for  it  is  only  indirectly  referred 
to  in  the  Scri])tures.  The  tree  grows 
in  Judiua,  and  it  is  said  that  the  fruit 
ripens  as  far  north  as  Jerusalem. 
Bethany,  which  is  near  Jerusalem,  sig- 
nifies "the  home  of  dates."  It  has 
been  represented  as  a  tree  delighting 
in  dry  and  arid  regions,  but  recent 
investigations  reveal  the  fact  that  it 
requires  an  abundant  supply  of  water ; 
and  wherever  it  is  found,  even  in  the 
midst  of  the  desert,    it  indicates  the  presence  of  surface  sjjrings. 

Cultlvatiou.—  \t  is  artificially  fertilized  by  shaking  a  branch  .rf  staminato 
flowers  over  the  pistillate  inflorescence. 

6^se.  — The  date  is  eaten  raw  in  all  case.s  and  furnishes  the  o,dv  f..o<i  f..r 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  regi.)n  where  it  grows.  It  is  "conserved 
with  sugar,  and  packed  in  l)ags  made  of  the  leaf.  It  is  .<^aid  that  the  native 
Arab  will  exist  for  days  without  inconvenience  on  a  few  handfuls  of  this  fruit, 
while  his  camels  are  content  with  date-stones,  this  may  .serve  to  indicate  the 
remarkable  amount  of  nutriment  which  the  date  contains. 

The  uses  of  the  leaf  and  stem  are  somewhat  similar  to  tiie  uses  to  which 
cocos  is  applied.     Date  trees  are  empl..yed  as  articles  of  trade  and  .lower. 


Phcenix  daotylifera  (Date  Palm). 


th 


282 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


GOCOS,  Linnaeus.  (Feather  Palm.)  Flowers  monoecious,  on  the 
same  spadix.  Spathe  simple,  woody,  spindle-shaped  ;  staminate  flowers 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  spadix,  and  the  pistillate  ones  below.  Calyx 
of  the  staminate  flower  3-leaved ;  sepals  lanceolate,  keeled,  and  fre- 
quently united  at  the  base  ;  corolla  o-parted,  membranous  or  fleshy, 
usually  erect.  Stamens  6 ;  filaments  awl-shaped,  nearly  equal  in 
length ;  anthers  linear  and  erect ;  calyx  of  the  pistillate  flower  ovate 
or  sub-orbicular,  3-leaved  ;  sepals  convolute  ;  corolla  o-parted ;  petals 
membranaceous,  imbricated;  ovary  ovate  or  flattened-giobose,  1-celled; 
style  short  or  wanting ;  stigmas  3.  Fruit  ovate-elliptical  or  3-sided, 
outer  coating  thick  and  fibrous,  6  to  12  inches  long,  and  4  to  8  inches 
in  diameter.  Seed  nearly  globular  ;  testa  horny,  marked  with  three 
spots  at  the  top.  Large  palms;  trees  with  a  crown  of  feathery 
leaves. 


C.  nucifera,  Linnasus.     (Cocoanut  Palm.)     Trunk  .50  to  100  feet  high,  and 
I  to  2  feet  in  diameter.     Leaves  springing  from  the  terminal  bud,  alternate, 

pinnate,  sheathing  at  base ;  . 
pinnies  with  decurved  margins. 
Flowers  enveloped  in  a  spathe. 
Fruit  in  clusters  of  10  to  20, 
3-sided,  tapering  to  a  blunt 
point,  6  to  9  inches  long  and  3 
to  5  in  diameter;  outer  husk 
fibrous,  enveloped  in  a  smooth, 
glossy  cuticle ;  the  whole  an 
inch  or  more  in  thickness.  Seed 
a  prolate  spheroid,  4  to  5  inches 
long  and  3  to  4  in  diameter,  in- 
closed in  a  horny  shell,  rough 
on  the  outside,  and  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  thick,  inside  of  which 
and  adhering  to  it  is  a  coating 
or  wall  lialf  an  inch  thick,  hard, 
Avhite,  crisp,  oily,  and  edible ; 
the  cavity  within  is  filled  with 
a  rich,  limpid  liquor,  which  is 
very  grateful  to  the  palate.  A 
single  tree  sometimes  has  upon 
it  120  of  these  gigantic  nuts  at 
one  time. 

There  are  about  thirty  spe- 
cies to  this  genus,  all  tropical 
or  strictly  subtropical. 

Geoqraphy.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  cocoanut  is  equatorial,  extending 
twenty-five  degrees  both  sides  of  the  equator  in  seacoast  regions.  It  is  found 
in  higher  latitudes,  but  does  not  fruit  well  above  25°,  except  in  localities 
especially  favored  by  a  high  temperature,  —  a  temperature  which  is  seldom 
below  75°  Fahrenheit.  It  abounds  in  the  coast  regions  of  Brazil,  on  the  West 
ItKlia  Islands,  the  western  and  eastern  coast,  and  islands  of  Central  America; 


Cocos  NtrciPEEA  (Cocoanut  Palm). 


PALM^:.  283 

it  is  extensively  grown  in  Ceylon,  and  in  all  the  coa-st  couutrie.s  of  southern 
Asia,  especially  in  Farther  India  and  southwestern  China,  and  delights  in  a 
sea  exposure. 

Etyuiology. —  Cocos,  the  generic  name,  is  sup])Osed  to  be  derived  from  the 
l^ortuguese  word  coco,  a  monkey,  due  to  the  three  spots  on  the  end  of  the  nut, 
which  make  it  resemble  the  face  of  that  animal.  It  is  also  believed  to  come 
from  the  Greek  word  kokkos,  a  fruit  or  berry.  Nuc'ifera,  the  specific  name,  is 
compounded  of  the  two  Latin  words,  nux,  a  nut,  and  fero,  bear,  and  signifies 
"  nut-bearing."     Cocoanut,  the  common  name,  is  made  up  of  coco  and  nut. 

Histori/.  —  It  is  on  record  that  this  fruit,  if  not  the  tree,  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Egyptians  centuries  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Columbus  found  it  growing  in  Central  America  on  his  fourth  voyage  to  the 
New  World.  The  Arabs  were  acciuaiuted  with  it,  and  their  phvsicians  wrote 
of  it  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  has  Indian,  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Malay 
names,  showing  it  to  be  native  in  those  countries  four  thousand  years  ago. 
The  bulk  of  evidence  is  that  the  home  of  the  cocoanut  is  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  whence  it  has  sown  itself,  by  means  of  the  ocean  currents,  on  the 
coasts  of  eastern  Africa  and  the  far  off  shores  of  western  America.  The 
character  of  its  fruit  is  highly  favorable  to  its  distribution  by  sea ;  and  its 
preference  for  the  seacoast  leads  to  the  inference  that  it  lias  drifted  across 
the  ocean  and  been  thrown  upon  the  isles  and  low  shores,  where  it  has  become 
naturalized,  —  the  seed  being  covered  by  a  strong  shell,  and  the  whole  inclosed 
in  a  light,  porous  husk,  which  is  impervious  to  water,  on  account  of  a  smooth, 
glossy  cuticle  which  envelops  it. 

Use. — There  is  not  another  individual  of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom 
which  furnishes  so  many  useful  substances  to  man,  no  single  tree  of  the  vast 
flora  of  the  world  is  so  completely  utilized,  as  the  cocoanut  palm.  Its  products 
are  :  sugar,  milk,  solid  cream,  wine,  vinegar,  oil,  cordage,  cloth,  cups,  timber 
for  building,  and  materials  for  implements  of  husbandry,  furniture,  baskets, 
mats,  and  culinary  utensils.  The  inhabitants  of  large  districts  subsist  almost 
exclusively  upon  its  fruit  alone.  The  shells  are  used  for  goblets,  ornamented 
with  carving. 

In  Ceylon  a  man's  credit  and  commercial  standing  is  measured  by  the  num- 
ber of  cocoanut  trees  he  has  in  his  plantation. 

The  fruit  is  largely  used  in  America  and  Europe  for  the  preparation  of 
dessert  dishes,  as  pies,  custards,  cakes,  and  confections ;  and  the  desiccating 
of  the  cocoanut  has  become  an  important  industry  in  the  eastern  United 
States.  The  oil  of  the  nut  is  treated  to  extract  the  stearine  which  is  employed 
for  the  manufacture  of  candles  ;  the  more  fluid  parts  are  used  for  salad  dress- 
ings, for  illuminating  purposes,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Soap  made 
with  this  oil  is  so  soluble  as  to  make  it  capable  of  use  in  sea  water.  Among 
fibrous  plants  the  cocos  holds  high  rank.  The  fiber  of  the  husk  (coir)  is  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  floor  cloths,  door  mats,  strings,  bags,  brushes, 
brooms,  and  many  other  articles  for  domestic  use.  It  does  not  decay  m 
water.  The  leaves  serve  for  thatch,  and  their  strong  midribs  are  divided  into 
splints,  and  woven  into  baskets. 

METROXYLON,  Rottb.  (Feather  Palm.)  Flowers  polygamous. 
Stamiiiatf  Howcrs  with  funnel-shaped  calyx,  3-toothed;  corolla 
3-parted,  lapping  each  other;  stamens  G,  inserted  on  the  base  of 
the  corolla  ;  filanu'uts  united  at  tlie  ba.^e  ;  anthers  linear  and  dorsi- 


284 


DESCRIPTIVE    BOTANY. 


^^^^ 


fixed.  Pistillate  flowers  much  like  the  staminate  ones  ;  ovary  oblong, 
3-celled,  conical,  with  3  tooth-like  stigmas  ;  ovules  3.  Fruit  ellipsoidal 
or  subglobular,  1-celled,  1-seeded  ;  pericarp  clothed  with  scales,  imbri- 
cated. Leaves  terminal,  nearly  erect,  pinnatisect;  segments  usually 
opposite,  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate ;  petiole  convex  underneath, 
furrowed  above.  Spadix  large,  branched,  loose ;  spathe  leathery. 
Flowers  immersed  in  a  woolly  covering,  small. 

M.  sagu,  Rottb.  (Sago  Palm.)  Trunk  30  to  50  feet  high,  aud  6  to  15 
inches  in  diameter,  straight,  cylindrical,  gray,  while  young  armed  with  strong, 
sharp  spines  to  protect  it  against  the  attacks  of  the  wild  hog ;  these  spines 
fall  off  when  the  rind  has  become  hard.  Outer  coat  of  the  trunk  hard,  inner 
part  spongy.     Leaves  few,  crowning  the  stem  ;  entire  leaf,  including  petiole, 

about  20  feet  long,  erect,  slightly  curved ; 
petiole  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter  near  the 
base,  clasping ;  rachis  square  below,  and 
keeled  or  triangular  above.  Leaflets  many 
and  opposite,  middle  ones  longer,  straight, 
stiff,  narrow,  linear-lanceolate,  acute,  entire, 
leathery  and  smooth,  3  veined,  bright-green 
above,  pale  beneath.  Flowers  unisexual  or 
perfect,  sometimes  mixed  in  the  same  spadix, 
numerous,  small,  each  with  three  small 
bracts,  smooth  within,  covered  on  the  out- 
side with  a  yellowish  wool,  and  in  the  axil 
of  a  strong  smooth  bract.  Inflorescence  in 
a  cylindrical,  dense  spike,  4  inches  long. 
The  whole  inflorescence  consists  of  numer- 
ous spikes  arranged  along  on  6  to  9  main 
stalks,  which  crown  the  tree,  making  a 
center-piece  for  the  leaves.  Calyx  rigid, 
smooth,  and  3-lobed  ;  corolla  much  larger 
than  the  calyx,  cut  into  three  obtuse,  thin 
segments  ;  stamens  6,  as  long  as  the  corolla, 
and  inserted  on  it  at  its  base ;  ovary  short-stalked,  imperfectly  3-celled,  1  ovule 
in  a  cell ;  style  conical,  tapering,  pointed.  Fruit  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter,  spherical,  mucronate  at  summit,  clothed  with  greenish-red  scales. 
Seed  solitary,  enveloped  in  a  dark-brown  testa.  The  tree  matures  in  from 
1 5  to  20  years,  when  it  flowers  and  fruits  and  dies.  The  seeds  seldom  mature, 
and  the  tree  is  propagated  by  stolons. 

There  are  six  species  of  this  palm,  but  the  sago  of  commerce  is  obtained 
from  the  following  species  :  — 

M.  sagu,  M.  spinosa,  and  M.  Igevis. 

Geographjj.  —  This  tree  is  found  only  in  the  tropics,  in  the  hottest  and  wet- 
test parts  of  Asia.  It  flourishes  throughout  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  extend- 
ing about  10  degrees  both  sides  of  the  equator,  abounding  in  swampy  localities. 

Etymology.  —  Metroxylon  is  from  the  Greek  iirirpa,  the  heart  or  pith  ;  i,v\ov, 
wood  or  tree  ;  hence  pith-tree.  Sagu  is  the  Malay  name  for  "  bread  "  or 
"  food."     Sago  is  a  corruption  of  sagu. 

History.  —  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  ancients  were  acquainted 
with  the  product  of  this  tree.     When  the  East  Indies  were  first  visited  by 


Metroxylon  sagu  (Sago  Palm). 


GKAMINE^..  286 

Europeans  the  sago  loustitutecl  the  ijiiiicipal  I'<km1  of  the  natives  of  Malacca, 
soutliern  China,  and  the  adjacent  isles. 

Preparation.  —  The  tree  grows  best  in  a  muddy  l)i)g.  An  acre  yields  about 
300,000  pounds,  and  a  single  tree  produces  about  500  pounds,  —  a  very  large 
tree,  900  pounds.  It  is  cut  at  the  foot,  just  as  it  is  about  to  fruit,  which 
occurs  when  the  tree  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  old.  The  top  is  taken  off, 
and  a  strip  of  the  shell  or  outer  coating  is  removed  the  wliole  length  of  the 
trunk,  and  with  an  instrument  constructed  by  fastening  a  sharp  stone  to  a 
stick  the  pith  is  removed,  leaving  a  thin  shell  not  more  than  an  inch  thick. 
The  pith  is  kneaded  in  water,  in  large  trouglis,  by  which  jjrocess  the  starch  or 
sago  is  washed  out  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  ;  the  water  is  tlien  run  off.  This 
starch,  or  sago,  is  then  made  into  balls  or  rolls,  which  weigh  thirty  pounds 
each,  when  it  is  ready  for  use,  as  crude  or  raw  sago.  The  natives  make  it 
into  cakes,  and  bake  it,  iu  which  condition  it  will  keep  for  years,  and  when 
used  it  merely  needs  soaking.  One  tree  will  produce  sufficient  food  to  keep  a 
man  for  a  year. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  sago,  due  to  different  methods  of  prepara- 
tion. Pearl  sago,  the  variety  which  reaches  the  American  market,  is  prepared 
in  Singapore  by  the  Chinese ;  the  raw  sago  is  made  into  a  paste,  forced 
through  sieves  and  dried  in  pans  over  fire,  and  constantly  stirred  while  under- 
going the  process. 

Use.  —  Sago  furnishes  the  inhabitants  of  Malaysia  and  southern  Asia  a 
food  material  equal  in  importance  to  rice  in  other  parts  of  Asia.  Many  mil- 
lions know  no  other  food  but  fish  and  the  crude  sago. 

In  Europe  and  the  United  States  it  is  a  popular  material  for  puddings 
and  custards.  It  is  pure  starch,  free  from  all  irritating  character,  and 
hence  constitutes  an  excellent  food  for  infants,  old  people,  and  convalescent 
invalids. 

The  leaves  are  used  for  thatching ;  the  leaf-stalks,  immense  in  size,  furnish 
building  material,  and  the  fiber  is  used  for  cordage ;  in  fact,  all  parts  of  the 
plant  are  applied  to  some  use. 

Order   LXI.     GRAMINE^. 

Flowers  perfect,  occasionally  monoecious  or  dioecious,  sometimes 
polygamous,  each  mostly  with  2  opposite  bracts  or  pale;^,  the  lower  of 
which  is  larger.  Inflorescence  in  spikelets,  the  spikelets  variously  col- 
lected into  panicles  or  spikes.  Perianth  imperfect,  seldom  wanting, 
composed  of  whorled  hypogynous,  membranous,  or  fleshy,  irregular 
scales,  free  or  connate,  3,  2,  or  1  in  number,  the  outer  alternate  with 
the  paleae.  Stamens  hypogynous,  3  or  6  in  number,  seldom  4-2  or  1  ; 
ovary  free,  1-celled,  1-ovuled ;  styles  2,  very  rarely  3,  free  or  connate 
at  base,  or  united :  stigmas  with  simple  or  branched  hairs.  Leaves 
alternate,  springing  from  the  nodes;  petiole  dilated,  convolute,  sheath- 
ing; sheath  split  in  front,  blade  entire,  mostly  linear;  stipule  axillary 
at  the  top  of  the  leaf-sheath.  Stem  cylindrical,  rarely  flattened,  fistular 
or  solid,  mostly  jointed  at  the  insertion  of  the  leaves;  nodes  annular, 
solid,  and  swollen. 

Annuals  or  perennials,  with  fibrous  or  creeping  rhizome,  frequently 
stoloniferous  at  the  lower  node. 


286  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Some  of  the  cultivated  species  of  this  order  are  not  known  in  a  wild 
state.  Number  of  genera,  1,298 ;  species,  3,200  ;  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Our  most  useful  plants  belong  to  this  order.  The  stems 
and  culms  of  most  of  species  are  largely  composed  of  silicates. 

ZEA,  L.  Flowers  monoecious  ;  staminate  flowers  in  terminal  pani- 
cles ;  pistillate  flowers  in  1-3  axillary  spikes ;  staminate  spikelets 
2-flowered,  with  2  concave  glumes,  the  lower  one  3-nerved,  the  upper 
one  2-nerved.  Palese  membranous  and  without  arms,  the  two  col- 
lateral and  fleshy  scales  glabrous.  Stamens  3  in  number,  and  the 
linear  anthers  4-sided.  Pistillate  flowers  with  very  short  glumes 
on  an  axillary  spike,  which  is  inclosed  by  many  spathe-like  bracts; 
these  form  the  husk  by  which  the  fruit  is  protected.  Style  simple, 
very  long,  thread-like,  far  exserted,  and  hanging. 

Z.  mays,  L.  (Indian  Corn,  Maize.)  Stem  or  culm  from  3  to  15  feet  high,  1 
to  2  inches  in  diameter,  composed  of  bundles  of  woody  fiber  imbedded  in  pith ; 
the  whole  inclosed  in  a  smooth,  flinty  cortex,  terete,  grooved  on  one  side  with 
a  smooth,  semi-circular  channel,  and  divided  into  nodes  whose  intervals  are 
from  5  to  9  inches  long,  crowned  at  the  top  with  a  compound  panicle  of 
staminate  flowers  called  "the  tassel."  Root  fibrous;  the  stem  throws  off 
aerial  roots  from  the  nodes  next  to  the  ground,  which  are  called  "brace 
roots." 

The  pistillate  flowers  are  borne  on  a  close  axillary  spike,  inclosed  in  a  mass 
of  spathe-like  bracts,  called  "  the  husks,"  and  are  characterized  by  the  elon- 
gated, filiform  styles,  which  extend  far  beyond  the  orifice  of  the  bracts  and 
hang  in  tresses  over  the  ear  or  head,  like  bundles  of  silk  threads ;  they  are 
called  the  "silk,"  The  leaf  appears  at  the  nodes,  clasping  the  stalk  by  striate 
sheaths,  which  are  eared,  from  2  to  4  feet  long,  and  from  2  to  4  inches  broad, 
linear-lanceolate.     There  are  no  radical  leaves. 

Emit  a  flat,  reniform  or  cuneate-shaped  seed,  arranged  in  rows  on  the  rachis, 
which  is  from  .'j  to  12  inches  long,  and  called  the  "  cob  " ;  the  number  of  rows 
on  a  cob  varies  from  8  to  14,  with  from  20  to  .50  seeds  in  a  row.  The  cob 
ranges  from  three  fourths  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 

Flowers  in  July  or  August,  and  ripens  its  fruit  in  September  and  October. 

In  common  Avith  other  plants  grown  from  seed,  it  sports  and  forms  varieties 
which  depart  from  the  specific  character  in  color,  size,  and  shape  of  the  grain 
and  quality  of  the  meal  made  therefrom.  The  gourd-seed  varieties  are  in 
every  way  larger,  and  the  seeds  not  so  hard  and  flinty.  The  flour-corn 
has  reniform  seed,  but  is  softer,  and  is  used  largely  in  the  Southern  States 
for  bread.  The  gourd-seed  A'arieties  are  raised  in  the  South  and  West.  The 
eight-rowed  flint,  both  white  and  yellow,  are  grown  in  New  York  and  the 
eastern  Atlantic  States  north  of  New  York, 

The  number  of  forms  resulting  from  free  sporting  is  very  great ;  about  .30 
of  these  are  sufficiently  characteristic  and  constant  to  make  species,  and  would 
be  so  regarded  if  outside  of  cultivation. 

Geography  — Indian  corn  is  now  cultivated  and  is  an  important  crop  in  all 
the  United  States,  Upper  Canada,  Mexico,  South  America,  southern  Europe, 
Africa,  and  western  Asia.  It  does  not  grow  well  above  the  forty-fifth  parallel, 
but  flourishes  best  below  the  fortieth,  and  delights  in  a  hot,  sunny  clime. 


OnAMlNE^.. 


287 


Tropi.al  MM.l  sul.trupi."il  conntries  seem  io  he  the  lands  of  its  hirth       As  \t 

becomes  acclimateci  farther  uorth.  the  ears  diminish  in  size,  ami  the  who  e 

plant  becomes  dwarfed.     In  the  warm  regions  it  reaches  the  height  of "2  to 

Io  feet;  m  Maine  anrl  southern  Canada  it  ranges  from  3  to  4  feet      The  ears 

m  Canada  seldom  exceed  8  inches  in  length,  while  in  the  southern  United 

States  the  length  is  from  8  to  15  inches.  "^"'tcu 

Et,jmolo,jij.  —  Ze<i  is  from  the  Greek   Caw, 

.      live,  alluding  to  the  capacity  this  grain  has  to 

sustain  life.    Mays  and  maize  are  derived  from 

inahiz,   the    name    b}-    which    the    American 

aborigines  called  this  plant,  — the  meaning  of 

whicli  is   obscure.      Indian   corn   is   a   name 

given  by  Europeans,  on  account  of  the  use  of 

the  jjlant  by  the  aborigines  of  America. 

///s/o/y.  —  This   cereal  is   undoubtedly   of 
American  origin.     Attempts  have  been  made 
to  show  that  in  an  old  Chinese   book  found 
in  the  national   library  in   Paris  there  is  a 
figure  of  a   plant   identical   with   corn;   and 
hence  the  inference  is  drawn  that  it  is  also 
indigenous  to  Asia ;  but  there  is  good  reason 
to  doubt  that  it  was  known  in  the  Old  World 
before  the  discovery  of  America,  or  before 
Columbus  introduced  it  into  Spain   in  1520, 
twenty-eight  years  after  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World.     Humboldt  and  other  good  au- 
thorities do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  it  origi- 
nated solely  in  America.      In  a  marvelously 
sliort  time  it  spread   over  southern  Europe, 
northern  Africa,  and  western  Asia,  showing 
conclusively  that  had  it  been  known  in  Asia 
It   would   have    reached   Europe    before  the 
discovery  of  America.      It  is  found   in  the 
tombs  of  the  ancient  Peruvians,   and  in  the 
mounds  of  the  Mississippi.     C.  Darwin  found 
It  buried  with  shells  fifty-five  feet  above  tide- 
water.   It  is  nowhere  found  wild,  propagatin<r 

Itself.  r      r    e,  to 

Cultivation.  —  Maize  delights  in  a  light 
loam,  which  cannot  be  made  too  rich  by  fer- 
tilizers. In  the  well-worn  lands  of  the  Atlantic 
States  large  supplies  of  fertilizers  are  neces- 
sary to  abundant  crops;  but  in  the  rich  allu- 
vial bottoms  of  the  Missi.ssippi  Valley  nothing  is  nce.led  to  insure  an  abun 
dant  harvest  but  to  plough  and  plant,  and  stir  the  soil.  It  is  n  ^  te  inZ' 
mtersections  of  cross-drills,  four  feet  apart  each  wav,  bv  ^.^Z^ 

thirt^y  to  forty  bushels  to  the  acre  are  a  satisfactorv  vield ;  fiftv  an.l  seventv- 
fi;e  bushels  are  frequentlv  reached  ;  in  the  bottoni  lands  of  the  MiSl  S 
\  alley,  sixtv  to  eighty  bushels  are  not  uncommon.  i'^^'^^Mppi 

In  the  Atlantic  States  north  of  New  Jersey  the  vellow  and  white  fiint  varie- 
ties are  grown,  but  in   the  lowlands  of  New  Jersey  and  further  south  the 


7.KK  MAYS  (Indian  Corn). 


288  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

gourd-seed  varieties  are  planted,  which  require  a  longer  season  than  the  climate 
north  of  central  New  Jersey  affords. 

Use.  —  As  an  article  of  food,  Indian  corn  is  used  for  bread,  mush,  griddle- 
cakes,  puddings,  dumplings,  etc.  When  merely  cracked,  it  is  called  "  samp," 
and  is  prepared  for  the  table  by  boiling  and  serving  like  a  vegetable,  or  by 
boiling  it  with  salt  meats.  When  coarsely  ground  it  is  called  "  hominy,"  and 
is  cooked  and  served  as  oatmeal,  and  eaten  with  milk  or  sauce. 

Large  quantities  of  starch  are  manufactured  from  it,  both  for  the  table  and 
the  laundry.  It  is  also  used  in  large  quantities  for  distilling,  and  is  the  chief 
material  for  manufacturing  the  celebrated  Bourbon  w^hiskey. 

But  the  most  important  use  made  of  this  grain  is  as  feed  for  cattle,  sheep, 
horses,  and  swine ;  it  excels  all  other  feed  for  its  fattening  properties. 

The  leaves  and  upper  parts  of  the  stalks  are  good  substitutes  for  hay,  and 
the  cobs  are  excellent  fuel.  The  quantity  of  corn  raised  in  the  United  States 
exceeds  the  amount  of  all  the  other  cereals  combined.  It  yields  the  largest 
returns  of  all  the  cereals. 

Marts.  —  The  great  marts  of  North  America  are  Chicago,  Buffalo,  St.  Louis, 
New  Orleans,  New  York,  and  San  Francisco,  in  the  United  States,  and  Toronto 
in  Canada. 

TRITICUM,  L.  Spikelets  from  2-  to  many-flowered,  in  a  stout  spike. 
Florets  distichous  ;  rachis  zigzag ;  glumes  nearly  opposite,  not  quite 
equal,  sometimes  with  awns  ;  inner  palege  herbaceous,  lower  one  con- 
cave and  sometimes  awned  or  mucronate,  upper  one  with  2  aculeate 
and  ciliate  keels.  Scales  2,  usually  entire  and  ciliate.  Stamens  3. 
Ovary  sessile,  crowned  with  2  plumose  stigmas. 

T.  vulgare,  L.  (Wheat.)  Stem  or  culm  2  to  5  feet  high,  tapering  from  the 
root  to  the  base  of  the  head  or  the  ear,  divided  by  nodes  into  several  inter- 
nodes,  or  lengths,  from  4  to  7  inches  long.  At  each  node  is  a  single,  clasping, 
lance-shaped  leaf,  strongly  veined  and  rough  on  the  upper  side.  Flowers 
appear  at  the  top  of  the  culm  in  a  close  panicle. 

The  grains,  or  seeds,  are  OA^al  in  shape,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  flat, 
and  marked  on  the  side  next  the  rachis  by  a  groove  the  whole  length,  outside 
convex.  It  is  an  annual,  and  when  planted  in  early  spring,  it  flowers  and  fruits 
the  same  season;  when  thus  cultivated  it  is  known  as  ".summer  wheat"  or 
"  spring  wheat."  The  best  wheat  is  biennial ;  it  is  planted  in  early  autumn, 
in  time  to  take  root  and  form  root  or  radical  leaves  before  winter  sets  in  ;  it 
ripens  in  July  of  the  following  year,  and  is  called  "  winter  wheat,"  because  it 
remains  in  the  ground  during  the  winter. 

As  wheat  is  grown  from  the  seed  it  sports  or  produces  ncAv  forms  ;  growers 
have  taken  advantage  of  this  circumstance  to  obtain  improved  varieties,  and 
very  many  such  varieties  have  from  time  to  time  been  recommended  by  wlieat 
growers,  especially  in  Europe  and  America.  The  varieties  under  which  the 
forms  may  be  classified  in  America  are :  — 

Var.  hybernum.     Winter  Wheat.    T.  hybernum,  L. 

Var.  aestivum.     Summer  AVheat.     T.  aestivum,  L. 

Var.  nudum.     No-bearded  Wheat. 

Var.  album.     White  Wheat. 

Var.  rubrum.     Red  Wheat,  or  Mediterranean  Wheat. 

There  are  many  otlier  forms,  all  referable  to  the  above,  which  are  sufficiently 
constant  to  be  considered  varieties. 


GRAMINE^.. 


289 


T.  compositum  deserves  to  be  treated  as  a  species,  and  m  all  respects  resem- 
bles T.  viilgare,  except  that  the  stalk  is  thicker,  aiul  the  head  branchiug  It 
IS  growu  m  nurtheru  Africa,  aud  in  suutiiern  Italv,  and  was  no  doubt  the 
wheat  ot  the  ancient  Hebrews  and  the  Romans. 

Geofjraphy.  — Wheat  does  not  grow  well  north  of  the  fiftieth  degree  of 
Dorth  latitude  in  North  America,  nor  south  <.f  tlie  thirtieth  degree.  In  Europe 
It  grows  well  in  southern  liussia  below  51°, 
and  is  cultivated  with  success  throughout 
central  and  western  Europe,  and  as  far  south 
as  southern  Italy.  It  is  also  cultivated  suc- 
cessfully in  Turkey,  Syria,  northern  and 
southern  Africa,  and  in  the  south  temperate 
zone  in  South  America,  —  in  Brazil,  Chile 
and  Buenos  Ay  res  ;  also  in  Australia,  wliere 
it  constitutes  the  most  important  object  of 
agriculture.  The  great  wheat-gro\\ing  re- 
gions of  the  world  are  the  southwestern 
plains  of  Kussia,  the  great  central  plain  of 
North  America,  the  southern  ])lains  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  recently,  northern  India  and 
England. 

Etymology.  —  Triticum  is  from  the  Latin 
verb  tero,  whose  ])articiple  is  tritus,  rubbed, 
—  alluding  either  to  the  practice  of  rubbing 
it  to  separate  the  grain  from  the  chaff,  or 
to  the  mode  of  grinding  it  into  flour.  The 
specific  name  vuU/are  is  the  Latin  for  "  com- 
mon." The  word  wheat,  the  common  name, 
is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit 
sereta,  meaning  "  white,"  and  arises  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  flour  made  from  this 
grain  is  white. 

History.  —  No  form  of  wheat,  nor  any 
species  closely  resembling  it,  has  ever  beeii 
seen  wild.  It  must,  therefore,  either  have 
been  very  much  altered  from  the  original 
wild  grass,  which  tradition  and  probability 
would  lead  one  to  consider  a  native  of  some 
part  of  central  Asia ;  or  else,  by  reason  of 
changes  of  climate  in  the  country  of  its 
origin,  it  has  become  extinct  as  a  wild  plant. 
In  favor  of  the  latter  supposition  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  former  is  the  fact  that,  like  other 
annual  cereals,  the  wheat  shows  very  little 
tendency  to  vary.  The  forms  cultivated  in 
ancient  Egypt,  in  China,  and  in   Talestine. 

appear  to  be  identical  in  all  respects  with'those  we  are  now  familiar  with. 
The  home  of  the  wheat  is  gener.illy  believed  to  be  western  Asia  in  the  coun- 
tries watered  by  the  Tigris  an.l  Euphrates,  whence  it  ha.,  found'its  wav  into 
every  favorable  clime  where  a.-ri.-ulture  is  practiced.  Among  tho  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Talestine,  MesojM.f:„nia.  and  northern  Svria 
Pk.  Fi.  —  20  "    '' 


Triticum  vuloabe  (Wheat). 


290  J)E«C'KirnVK    KOTANV. 

it  was  the  most  iinportaut  crop.  In  the  western  hemisphere  wheat  was  not 
Icnown  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Humboldt  mentions  that  it  was  accident- 
ally introduced  into  Mexico  with  rice  brought  from  Spain  by  a  negro  slave 
belonging  to  Cortes,  and  the  same  writer  saw  at  Quito  the  earthen  vase  in 
which  a  Flemish  monk  had  introduced  from  Ghent  the  first  wheat  grown  in 
South  America. 

Cultivation.  —  Wheat  is  a  true  patrician  ;  it  will  not  thrive  upon  scanty  fare, 
nor  flourish  without  attention.  It  is  what  agriculturists  call  a  gross  feeder ; 
it  not  only  demands  a  deep,  heavy  soil,  but  the  soil  must  be  well  tilled  and 
highly  fertilized  in  order  to  satisfy  this  prince  of  the  cereals.  Without  these 
conditions  it  refuses  to  yield  largely,  but  responds  with  liberal  harvests  to 
generous  cultivation. 

In  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the  southern  plains  of 
California,  and  the  wheat-growing  lands  of  southern  Russia,  nothing  is  needed 
but  to  prepare  the  ground  and  sow  the  seed  to  insure  a  large  yield ;  but  in 
old  and  long  cultivated  districts  the  most  careful  attention  to  suitable  fertil- 
izers is  necessary  to  secure  even  moderate  crops.  The  yield  per  acre  varies 
from  ten  to  sixty  bushels.  In  the  well-worn  fields  of  the  Atlantic  states  the 
yield  is  frequently  not  more  than  twelve  bushels,  and  thirty  bushels  is  a  very 
satisfactory  crop.  In  the  rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  central  states  the  yield  fre- 
quently reaches  fifty  bushels,  and  sometimes  sixty.  The  quantities  vary  with 
soil,  climate,  and  mode  of  cultivation. 

A  notable  case  of  high  farming  was  brought  before  the  court  in  ancient 
Eome.  A  farmer  was  accused  of  sorcery  for  raising  better  crops  of  Avheat  than 
his  neighbors.  When  the  accused  appeared  before  his  judges,  who  sat  in  the 
open  air,  he  brought  with  him  and  exhibited  his  agricultural  implements,  supe- 
rior in  construction,  his  well-fed  oxen,  and  his  callous  hands.  Pointing  to  his 
cattle  and  implements,  he  exclaimed  :  "  Here,  O  Romans,  are  my  tools  of 
witchcraft,  which  I  employ  to  make  my  crops."  His  judges  pronounced  him 
innocent,  reprimanded  his  accusers,  and  advised  them  to  follow  his  example. 

Use.  —  A  bushel  of  wheat  weighs  60  pounds  and  will  make  47  pounds  of 
flour,  leaving  13  pounds  of  middlings,  bran,  and  waste. 

This  grain  now  constitutes  the  staple  food  of  most  of  the  ci%ilized  peoples 
of  the  earth.  The  flour  is  made  into  bread,  cakes,  puddings,  pastry,  crackers, 
biscuit,  etc.,  and  is  so  well  known  as  to  need  no  further  description.  The  Jews 
were  acquainted  with  the  making  of  leavened  bread,  which  they  no  doubt 
learned  while  in  Egyptian  bondage.  When  leavened  bread  was  first  used, 
and  who  first  made  it,  is  nowhere  recorded.  Homer  speaks  of  leavened  bread 
at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  War.  Pliny  states  that  there  were  no  public  bakers 
in  Rome  until  about  200  years  before  Christ. 

The  straw  of  wheat  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  hats  for  both  men  and 
women.  The  fine  Leghorn  straws  are  manufactured  from  the  stalks  of  the 
wheat  collected  while  green,  and  bleached  in  the  sun.  Wheat  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  forage  crop.  A  variety  has  been  introduced  from  Japan  which 
seems  to  be  very  useful  for  this  purpose. 

Marts. —  The  great  wheat  markets  of  the  world  are :  Odessa,  on  the  Black 
Sea ;  Riga,  on  the  Baltic  ;  the  North  German  ports  ;  Constantinople ;  London 
and  Liverpool,  in  England ;  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  New  York,  in  the 
United  States ;  and  Toronto,  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

ORYZA,  L.  (Rice.)  Spikelets  1-flowered,  in  compound  panicles  ; 
flowers  perfect,  with  2  very  small,  bristle-formed  glumes ;  paleje  2  in 


ORAMIXE^?^. 


291 


number,  boat-shaped  and  fattened,  the  lower  one  broader,  and  tipped 
with  a  straight  awn;  stamens  6  in  number;  stigmas  clothed  with 
hairs. 

1.  0.  sativa,  L.  (Cunuuon  Ku-e.)  Stem  from  2  to  5  feet  high,  somewhat  Hke 
the  cuhu  of  wheat,  with  shorter  iuteruodes.  Leaf  liuear,  elougated,  aud  rough. 
Flowers  iu  close  ])auicles.  Branches  erect,  from  5  to  10  inches  long,  outer  pale, 
strongly  veiued  and  keeled  ;  hisi)id  ciliate,  termiuating  iu  an  awu.  Grain 
white,  somewhat  fusiform,  compressed,  slight  grooves  aud  ridges  extending 
lengthwise,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  about  an  eightli  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.     Flowers  in  July ;  fruits  iu  August  and  September. 

Besides  the  sativa,  we  have  the  following  species  :  — 

2.  0.  praecox,  Early  Kice. 

3.  0.  mutica.  The  mountain  Kice. 

4.  0.  glutinosa.  Clammy  Rice. 

These  last  three  and  several  others  are  said  to  be  well-marked  and  constant 
species ;  but  as  rice  is  grown  from  the  seed,  it  sports  freely,  and  many  varieties 
have  arisen. 

Geography.  —  Rice  grows  well  in  all  the  low  lands  of  the  tropics  where 
alternate  flooding  and  drying  can  be  effected,  and  in  the  temperate  zones  as 
high  as  the  thirty-sixth  parallel.  In  India  there 
is  a  species,  O.  coarctata,  that  grows  upon  the 
uplands,  and  as  high  above  the  sea  as  4,000  feet. 
It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  China,  Japan,  the 
East  Indies,  especially  in  the  southern  parts,  in 
Japan  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  in 
Africa,  having  been  introduced  into  Egypt  in  the 
days  of  the  caliphs.  It  has  in  later  years  been 
raised  sparingly  in  southern  Europe.  The  moun- 
tain or  upland  rice  has  been  successfully  grown  iu 
Hungary.  It  is  planted  and  successfully  grown  in 
South  America  and  in  the  southern  United  States. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  The  word  07\i/za  is  Latinized  from 
eruz,  an  old  Arabic  or  Sanscrit  word,  which  signi- 
fies "  grow,"  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  applied 
to  this  plant  on  account  of  its  prolific  cliaracter. 
Sativa,  the  specific  name,  means  "  sown,"  or  "cul- 
tivated." The  common  name  rice  is  supposed  to 
be  a  corruption  of  the  botanic  name. 

Histori/.  —  There  is  no  record  that  reveals  tlie 
time  when  rice  first  became  a  food  of  the  luiman 
family.  It  is  one  of  the  cereals  yearly  sown  by 
the  Emperor  of  China ;  the  first  record  of  such 
sowing  was  made  in  the  year  2S00  b.  r.  The  little 
that  is  known  about  its  early  hi.story  points  to 
southern  Asia  as  the  land  of  its  nativity.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  l)rought  it  to  the  notice  of  the 

Greeks  on  his  return  froju  his  expedition  to  India  330  n.  c.  Its  cultivation 
in  Italy  dates  fro'm  1468  of  the  present  era.  Since  anything  has  been  known 
of  Asia,  rice  has  constituted  the  principal  food  of  all  classes  in  that  country 
uot  only  on  the  continent,  but  also  on  the  adjacent  islands. 


OnTZA  SATIVA  (Rice). 


292  DESCRITTIVE   BOTANY. 

The  growth  of  rice  in  America  dates  from  about  the  year  1 700.  It  is  related 
that  a  vessel  from  Madagascar  entered  one  of  the  ports  of  South  Carolina, 
believed  to  be  Charleston,  and  the  captain  of  the  vessel  presented  Mr.  Wood- 
ward, a  settler,  with  a  small  quantity  of  seed  rice,  which  he  planted.  Soon 
after  this  occurrence  Mr.  Dubois,  the  treasurer  of  the  East  India  Co.,  sent  to 
Carolina  a  bag  of  rice.  From  these  two  small  quantities  of  seed,  coming  from 
different  countries,  sprang  the  three  varieties  of  rice  grown  in  America,  one 
of  which  is  now  the  favorite  in  the  markets  of  America,  as  well  as  in  Europe, 
and  is  pronounced  the  best  in  the  world. 

Rice  of  excellent  quality  is  raised  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  most  of  which  is 
brought  to  the  United  States  via  San  Francisco. 

Cultivation.  —  The  mode  of  culture  is  to  prepare  the  ground,  plant  the  seed 
in  drills  a  foot  apart  in  the  row,  with  the  rows  far  enough  apart  to  work 
between  them  in  keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds.  After  planting,  the 
field  is  flooded  for  some  days,  and  then  the  water  is  drained  off.  AVhen  the 
plants  make  their  appearance  above  the  ground  the  water  is  again  let  on  to 
kill  the  young  weeds.  After  two  or  three  weeks,  in  the  month  of  April,  the 
water  is  again  withdrawn,  and  the  ground  kept  free  from  weeds  with  the  hoe. 
AVhen  the  plants  are  some  eight  inches  to  a  foot  in  height,  late  in  August  or 
early  in  September,  the  water  is  let  on  and  left  till  the  grain  is  ripe.  Then 
the  water  is  finally  withdrawn,  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry, 
the  crop  is  reaped,  bound  in  sheaves,  and  taken  to  the  high  land  to  cure  and 
to  be  threshed. 

A  continuation  of  rainy  weather  about  harvest  time,  which  frequently 
occurs  in  southern  India,  renders  the  rice  crop  uncertain  there.  In  1770  the 
crop  failed,  or  was  destroyed,  and  ten  million  persons  died  of  starvation ;  in 
1860  one  and  a  half  million  persons  perished  from  the  same  cause. 

Use.  —  Rice,  in  the  United  States,  is  used  in  many  ways  :  it  is  prepared  by 
boiling  in  water  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable ;  cooked  with  milk  and  eaten  as  a 
porridge  for  dessert ;  baked  with  milk  and  eggs  for  dessert  puddings ;  ground 
into  flour  and  used  to  thicken  soups  and  gravies ;  and  also  made  into  griddle- 
cakes.  It  is  said  that  the  modes  of  cooking  rice  in  the  East  are  very  numerous  ; 
but  the  masses  of  Asia  boil  it  in  the  most  simple  manner,  and  eat  it  without 
any  sort  of  dressing. 

Rice,  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Egypt,  and  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Asia, 
forms  the  principal  article  of  food  for  more  than  five  hundred  million  persons. 
The  greater  part  of  the  teeming  millions  of  Japan,  China,  and  southern  India 
seldom  taste  any  other  food.  It  furnishes  food  for  a  far  greater  number  of 
people  than  any  other  plant.  Rice  does  not  possess  the  nutritive  qualities  of 
the  other  food  grains,  being  constituted  largely  of  starch  ;  it  should  not  be 
eaten  until  six  or  eight  months  after  harvesting. 

SACCHARTTM,  L.  (Sugar  Cane.)  Spikelets  panicled,  in  pairs,  one 
pedicellate,  and  the  other  sessile,  spikelets  made  up  of  2  flowers  each, 
at  the  base  of  which  is  a  tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  ;  lower  floret  without 
stamens  or  pistils,  a  single  bract  at  the  base ;  upper  floret  perfect ; 
glumes  2,  equal,  and  without  awns ;  stamens  1  to  3 ;  ovary  sessile, 
glabrous ;  styles  2,  elongated ;  stigma  plumose ;  hairs  simple  and 
toothed.     Fruit  free,  perennial. 

S.  officinarum,  L.  (Sugar  Cane.)  Stem  or  culm  10  to  20  feet  high,  com- 
posed of  a  strong  cortex  filled  with  a  pith,  charged  with  a  sugary  substance. 


GRAMIXEyE. 


293 


Internodc's  short.  Leaves  flat,  liuear-lauceolate,  c]asj)ing,  like  the  leaves  of 
maize.  Flowers  in  a  panicle,  2  feet  long ;  racemes  thread-like,  erect,  and 
spreading,  clothed  with  silky  hairs. 

Sugar  cane  grown  from  the  seed  spcn-ts  freely,  hence  there  are  many  species. 
—  The  following  have  been  found  growing  witliout  cultivation  :  S.  contractum, 
S.  polystachyum.  S.  dubium,  S.  rubicundum.  S.  atrorubens,  S.  fragile. 

(Jeofjnip/ii/.  —  The  sugar  cane  is  a  tropical  and  subtropical  plant.  The 
geographical  range  is  a  belt  extending  around  the  earth,  including  the  torrid 
zone  and  some  twelve  additional  degrees  l)oth  north  and  scjuth  of  the  tropics. 
The  West  Indies,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  the  southern  United  States,  in  America, 
the  Isle  of  Mauritius,  southern  India,  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  uortliern 
Australia  produce  most  of  the  sugar  of  commerce.  In  the  United  States, 
Louisiana  is  the  sugar-producing  region.  A  small  part  of  Mississippi,  and  also 
of  Missouri,  produce  cane. 

Etymology.  —  The  name  sacchantm  is  from 
the  Arabic  name  sakknr,  snk-kar,  corrupted  into 
sfifjai-.  The  specific  names  are  all  due  to  some 
characteristic  of  the  plant ;  as,  officinarum,  of 
the  shops ;  contractum,  smallness  of  the  whole 
plant,  etc. 

History.  —  The  sugar  cane  is  a  native  of 
Cochin  China ;  but  where  it  was  first  brought 
under  cultivation  is  not  known.  Circum- 
stances point  to  India.  It  is  known  that  the 
Venetians  imported  it  thence  by  way  of  the 
Ked  Sea  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  ;  and  ])revious  to  the  discovery  of 
America  it  was  grown  upon  the  islands  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean,  —  having  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Saracens,  and  carried  to  southern 
Spain  by  the  same  enterprising  people.  Soon 
after  the  discovery  of  the  \Vest  Indies  the  Dutch 
manufactured  sugar  in  the  Isle  of  St.  Thomas, 
in  1610,  and  the  English,  in  1643,  commenced 
its  manufacture  in  Barbadoes  and  Jamaica. 
Pliny  and  (lalen  both  speak  of  sugar  as  "  sweet 
salt,"  which  was  used  at  that  time  as  a  medical 
remedy.  It  was  first  substituted  for  honey  in  compounding  medicines  by 
Actuarius,  a  physician  of  the  tenth  century,  and  was  then  called  "Indian 
salt,"  which  points  to  India  as  the  country  of  its  origin. 

Five  hundred  years  ago  sugar  as  an  article  of  food  was  not  known  in 
Europe,  now  it  is  (jue  of  tlie  neces.saries  of  life  thnmghout  the  civilized  world, 
and  has  largely  superseded  honey,  whose  sweetness  was  so  mucli  extolled 
hy  the  ancients.  About  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese 
began  to  import  it  from  Brazil ;  it  was  then  used  in  medicine  or  as  a  great 
delicacy. 

L'p  to  1872  the  varictv  known  as  the  Creole  liad  been  cultivated  in  the 
LTnited  States  to  tho  exclusion  of  all  others.  It  was  found  to  have  greatly 
degenerated,  and  this  led  to  efforts  to  introduce  new  varieties.  Mr  Ln]iice. 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  ex])erienced  sugar  ])lanters.  visited  the  Ea.st  Indies 
and  the  islands  of  tlie  Pacific  to  examine  the  chnracter  and  condition  of  the 
cane.     Selecting  what  seemed  to  liim  the  best,  he  sent  lioiue  a  sliii>  loaded 


SACCHARrM    OFFICIXARC.M 

(Sugar  Cane). 


294  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

with  11,000  cuttings  of  new  varieties.  No  report  has  thus  far  been  made  of 
the  comparative  productiveness  of  the  kinds  introduced. 

A  few  years  ago  thirty-two  varieties  were  sent  from  Mauritius  to  the  British 
West  Indies ;  about  one  half  of  these  proved  to  be  constant,  and  worthy  of  the 
attention  of  sugar-growers.  Besides  these  forms  there  are  many  others,  which 
are  either  sports  or  modifications,  due  to  the  effects  of  soil,  climate,  and  mode 
of  culture. 

Chemistry.  —  Saccharose  or  cane-sugar  yields  to  the  chemist  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  C12H22O11,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.60.  It  crystallizes 
in  prisms,  which  are  phosphorescent  when  broken  or  electrified.  Its  solutions 
turn  polarized  light  to  the  right,  and  are  hence  called  dextrose.  It  fuses  at 
.310°  F. ;  it  is  soluble  in  water,  and  slightly  so  in  alcohol. 

Preparation.  —  Sugar  is  obtained  by  crushing  the  cane  between  grooved 
rollers,  whose  grooves  are  armed  with  iron.  The  expressed  juice  is  then 
evaporated  in  pans  at  a  low  temperature  and  in  a  partial  vacuum.  By  the 
use  of  lime,  charcoal,  etc.,  it  is  refined.  The  drainings  and  uncrystallized 
parts  are  molasses  and  syrup. 

The  cane,  after  passing  through  the  press,  is  soaked  in  water,  and  the  strain- 
ings and  rougher  parts  of  the  molasses  are  mixed  with  the  water ;  then  it  is 
allowed  to  ferment.  It  is  then  distilled,  and  produces  rum.  Large  quantities 
of  sugar  are  obtained  from  the  beet  in  Europe,  and  from  the  maple  tree  in 
America.  (See  Beet,  and  Sugar  Maple.)  The  sugar  of  China  is  obtained 
from  sorghum. 

Use.  —  Sugar  is  so  well  known  that  a  description  of  its  use  would  seem 
superfluous.  It  is  found  on  our  tables  in  some  form  at  every  meal.  It  is  a 
perfect  preservative  for  fruits  of  every  description,  and  the  principal  ingre- 
dient in  all  confectionery.  In  fact,  few  articles  of  food  have  attained  so  wide 
a  usefulness. 

Propagation .  —  To  preserve  the  constancy  of  species  and  varieties,  the  cane 
is  propagated  from  cuttings  either  from  the  upper  nodes  of  the  culm  or  from 
the  rootstock.  The  new  varieties  are  seedlings,  though  the  plant  seldom 
matures  seed  in  a  .state  of  cultivation. 

SORGHUM,  L.  Spikelets  panicled  in  twos*  or  threes  on  the  spreading 
branches ;  the  middle  spikelet  2-flowercd,  perfect,  lower  flower  abor- 
tive ;  side  spikelets  sterile,  without  awns ;  pedicels  usually  smooth. 
Glumes  leathery.     Stamens  3.     Annual. 

S.  saccharatum,  L.  (Broom  Corn.)  (Andropogon  saccharatum,  Pers.) 
Culm  6  to  9  feet  liigh,  solid,  with  pith  intermingled  with  woody  fiber  like 
Indian  corn,  about  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Leaves  1^  to  2\  feet  long,  Sc- 
inches wade,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  smooth,  pubescent  at  the  base  ;  panicle 
2  feet  long,  branches  simple  or  nearly  so ;  flexuous,  rough,  with  short  hairs. 

This  plant  is  propagated  from  seed,  hence  it  sports  freely,  ])roducing  many 
varieties. 

Geographij.  —  Sorghum  grows  best  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate 
zone,  but  will  mature  its  seed  in  eastern  Massachusetts.  It  is  grown  in  south- 
ern India,  northern  Africa,  southern  and  middle  Europe,  and  throughout  the 
United  States  of  North  America. 

Etymology.  —  The  word  sorghum  is  derivpd  from  sorghi,  the  Indian  name  of 
this  plant,  the  meaning  of  which  is  obscure.     The  common  name,  broom  com, 


GRAMTNE^E. 


295 


arises  from  the  use  to  wliich  the  ripjid  hvaiiches  of  tlio  panicle  is  applied,  ?'.  c, 
the  makiug  of  brooms,  ."^accliaratnm  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  this 
species  is  used  for  making  sugar. 

Hislonj.  —  Surghum  is  native  in  the  middle  of  Africa,  and  was  taken  to 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  whence  it  was  Ijrought 
by  colonists  to  ea.>^tern  North  America,  where  it  has  for  many  years  been 
cultivated.     It  lias  also  been  cultivated  in  Egypt,  Al)y.ssiuia,  and  the  Deccan. 

(Jse.  —  Sorghum  was  grown  formerly  in  the  eastern  United  States  for  the 
manufacture  of  brooms,  and  in  the  South  for  feed  for  cattle.  A  coarse  meal 
is  made  of  the  seed,  which  is  fed  to  poultry.  During  recent  years  it  has  been 
used  for  making  syrup  and  sugar. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  lias  given  much  attention  to  this  plant, 
in  order  to  ascertain  its  value  as  a  sugar  producer,  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  cane.  I\Ir,  Leonard  Wray  claims  that  varieties  grown  in  Natal  compare 
with  the  sugar  cane  in  the  ratio  of  five  to  six ;  that  is,  where  the  cane  yields 
thirty,  sorghum  yields  twenty-five.  It  is  cultivated  in  P>ance  and  French 
Africa  for  the  production  of  alcohol,  and  in  Italy  for  a  syrup  used  in  doctoring 


SECALE,  L.     Spikelets  2-flowered,  crowded  into  a  cylindrical  spike ; 
florets  sessile,  distichous,  perfect,  with  a  linear  rudiment  of  a  third 
terminal    floret.     Glumes   subopposite,   nearly   equal, 
keeled,  and  sometimes  awned.    Palea?.  herbaceous,  the 
lower   one  awned,   and   keeled   with    unequal   sides, 
outer  side  broader  and  thicker,  the  upper  palea  shorter, 
2-keeled  ;  scales  2  in  number,  entire,  ciliate  ;  stamens 
3;  ovary  sessile,  hairy;  stigmas  2,  subsessile,  termi-        ''MsXMI/// 
nal,    and    plumose  ;    hairs    lengthened,   simple,   and      ,^ 
sharply  denticulate ;  grains  hairy  at  the  top.     Spike 
simple,  compressed,  and  linear. 

S.  cereals,  L.  (Rye.)  Stem  hairy  near  the  head,  and 
ranging  from  3  to  5  feet  in  height.  Leaves  lance-linear, 
edges  and  upper  side  rough,  glaucous.  Heads  about  5 
inches  long,  linear,  flattened.  PalciU  lower,  ciliate  on  the 
keel  and  margin.  Awns  rough  and  ciliate,  long,  straight, 
erect.     Annual  and  biennial. 

There  is  l)ut  one  species  under  cultivation,  S.  cereale ;  but, 
like  all  plants  grown  from  the  seed,  it  sports,  and  the  varie- 
ties are  numerous,  though  far  le.ss  attention  has  been  paid 
to  its  cultivation  in  that  direction  than  to  wheat. 

(T€Offra/i/n/.  —  Tlie  geograjihical  range  of  rye  is  the  colder 
])arts  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  world,  between  48° 
and  69°  north  latitude  all  around  the  globe,  where  the  cere- 
als are  cultivated.  In  northeastern  United  States  it  is  an 
important  crop  for  bread  ;  in  the  central  states  it  is  largely  Secale  cerrale 
raised  for  distilling.     It  grows  well,  and  is  tlie  great  cereal  (Rye), 

of  northern   Europe,  and  especially  of  the  sandy  districts 
of  the  TJaltic  provinces,  and  the  shores  of  the  Cnlf  of  Finland 

T?ye  of  an  excellent  (jn-ility  for  bread   making  is  grown  upon  the  great 
plain  on   Long   Island.      William  Cobbet,  who  in   his  ih\\-  owned  a  large  tract 


296  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

on  the  uortheru  edge,  near  the  west  end,  boasted  that  his  rye  bread  was  better 
than,  and  nearly  as  white  as,  the  Englishman's  wheaten  loaf.  Cobbet  named 
his  place  Hyde  Park,  a  name  it  still  retains. 

Etymology.  —  The  word  secale  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Celtic 
word  sega,  a  sickle,  or  from  the  Latin  seco,  cut,  in  allusion  to  the  sharp, 
rough  edges  of  the  leaves.  The  specific  name,  cereale,  means  "  bread-corn  "  or 
"  bread-material,"  from  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  food  plants.  The  common  name, 
rye,  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ryge. 

History.  —  We  have  no  positive  knowledge  when  rye  was  first  cultivated. 
It  was  spoken  of  by  writers  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  It  is  native  to 
southern  Russia,  and  the  regions  north  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  To 
tlie  North  German,  the  Pole,  the  Norwegian,  the  Swede,  and  the  Russian,  rye 
is  what  wheat  is  to  the  inhabitant  of  southern  Europe,  the  Briton,  and  the 
American. 

It  was  used  largely  in  England  in  early  times,  probably  having  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Danes  and  Saxons.  The  wheat  introduced  earlier  by  the  Romans 
was  regarded  as  a  delicacy,  and  its  use  was  confined  to  a  few.  History  relates 
that  among  the  upper  classes  in  Great  Britain  hospitality  was  a  prominent 
feature,  and  Avhen  visitors  came,  the  most  lavish  jjrofusion  was  exercised 
in  their  entertainment.  Among  the  delicacies  proffered  on  such  occasions 
was  wheat  bread  ;  but  when  the  guest  prolonged  his  stay,  he  began  to  be 
treated  as  a  member  of  the  household,  and  the  rye  bread  was  returned  to  the 
table.  At  first  this  was  taken  as  a  compliment,  but  it  finally  came  to  be 
understood  as  a  hint  that  the  visit  had  been  sufficiently  long.  Hence  the 
proverb  :  "  Do  not  prolong  your  visit  till  the  rye  loaf  comes  on." 

[Ise.  —  Bread,  cakes,  biscuit,  and  puddings  are  made  of  rye ;  in  fact  it  is 
applied  to  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  wheat  is  used.  In  the  central 
states  rye  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  whiskey.  In  Holland  it 
is  mixed  with  both  barley  and  buckwheat  for  distilling ;  the  liquors  thus  pro- 
duced are  called  "  Hollands,"  and  when  flavored  with  juniper  berries,  they 
form  gin. 

Rye  is  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle,  and  especially  for  cows  when  giving 
milk. 

HOEDETJM,  L.  (Barle3\)  Three  spikelets  at  each  point  of  the 
rachis,  each  1-flowered,  the  side  florets  sometimes  abortive ;  glumes 
linear-lanceolate,  fiat,  stiff,  awn's  awl-shaped ;  paleae  herbaceous,  lower 
one  concave,  terminating  in  an  awn,  upper  one  2-keeled;  scales  2, 
sometimes  2-lobed,  ciliate,  sometimes  smooth ;  stamens  3 ;  ovary 
sessile,  hairy  at  the  top ;  stigmas  2,  nearly  terminal,  and  sessile. 
Caryopsis  terminating  in  a  hairy  summit.  It  is  an  annual,  flowering 
and  fruiting  the  same  season  it  is  sown. 

1.  H.  vulgare.  L.  (Barley.)  Culm  or  stem  2  to  3  feet  high,  smooth. 
Leaves  linear-lanceolate,  keeled,  and  striate,  smoothish,  eared  at  the  throat ; 
heads  3  inches  long,  stout,  4-sided,  sometimes  somewhat  6-sided,  lower  paleae 
crowned  with  long  awns,  serrulate  on  the  margin ;  upper  palese  obtuse  or 
emarginate.     Flowers  in  May.     Fruits  in  July. 

2.  H.  distichum,  L.  Stem  2  to  3  feet  high.  Leaves  like  the  last.  Heads 
about  4  inches  long,  flattened,  and  2-ranked.  Husk  attached  to  the  ripe  grain. 
Flowers  in  June,  and  ripens  in  last  of  July  to  August. 


GRAMINE^. 


297 


Like  other  plants  raised  from  the  seed,  it  sports  freely,  and  varieties  are 
numerous;  hut  the  two  species  here  deserihed  arc  pretty  constant,  and  little 
attention  has  heen  paid  to  inijiroving  or  perpetuatinfj  varieties,  especially  in 
America.  The  distichum  ripens  later,  and  is  in  some  places  preferred  for  that 
reason. 

In  Kurope  the  following  species  are  also  grown  :  — 

.?.  H.  hexastichon.  Six-rowed  Harley. 

4.  H.  zeocriton,  Battledoor  Harley. 

Harlev  stands  next  to  rye  in  importance  as  a  food  plant.  Its  characteristics 
a.s  to  cultivation  so  resemble  those  of  wheat  and  rye  that  little  needs  to  be 
said  about  them.  It  is,  however,  a  more  gross  feeder  than  rye,  and  will  not 
yield  heavily  without  high  tillage. 

Geography.  —  Barley  grows  and  ripens  over  a  larger  geographical  range 
than  either  wheat  or  rye.     It  ripens  and  yields  generous  crops  in  latitudes 
where  no  more  than  two  mouths  in  the  year  are  free  from  frost.     It  grows 
well  in  northern  Kussia  and  Siberia,  where  the 
ground  thaws  out  only  to  the  depth  of  two  feet, 
and  even  less.     It  will  ripen  also  in  warm  cli- 
mates, even  in  the  regions  of  no  frost,  but  de- 
lights in  a  short,  hot  summer,  such  as  charac- 
terizes the  higher   regions    of    the    temperate 
zones,  and  like  wheat  and  rye  is  to  be  found  au 
emigrant   to   all   the  cereal-growing   abodes   of 
civilized  man. 

Etymology.  —  The  name  Iwrdeum  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  hordiis,  heavy,  because  bread 
made  from  it  is  usually  heavy.  The  specific 
name  vulgare  signifies  "common,"  and  distichum, 
"two-ranked."  The  common  name,  barley,  is 
supposed  to  mean  "  bearded  grain." 

History.  —  The  ancient  home  of  the  grain  is 
not  known.  A  traditional  history  of  barley 
among  the  Egyptians  makes  it  the  first  grain 
used  by  man.  They  liold  that  their  goddess  Isis 
taught  men  its  use.  It  was  among  the  food  plant 
as  we  have  any  history  of  human  customs. 

A  six-ranked  barley,  H.  hexastichon,  cultivated  by  the  ancients,  has  been 
found  in  Egyptian  monuments  and  in  the  Lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland,  in 
deposits  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age.  A  species  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  denominated  the  "sacred  barley,"  was  used  to  decorate  the  hair  of  the 
goddess  Ceres.  Some  make  its  native  country  Tartary,  while  others  claim 
that  it  is  indigenous  to  Siberia.  Ili.story  bears  out  the  belief  that  its  home  is 
in  the  middle  parts  of  the  temjierate  zone  in  western  Asia.  It  does  not  fruit 
without  cultivation  ;  when  it  escapes  cultivation  it  ceases  in  a  year  or  two  to 
ripen  its  seed,  and  is  lost.  In  fact  this  is  the  case  with  other  cereals,  and  is 
looked  upon  as  a  great  mystery  ;  it  does  not  favor  or  bear  out  the  doctrine  of 
development,  for  the  other  species  under  this  genus  refuse  under  the  most 
careful  cultivation  to  be  anything  more  than  ordinary  forage  grasses.  Barley 
among  the  Romans  was  used  for  feed  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  it  also  con- 
stituted the  bread-grain  of  the  plebeian  classes.  Tliny  informs  us  that  the 
gladiators  were  called  "  hordcarii  "  (barley-eaters),  from  the  circumstance  that 
they  subsisted  on  barley. 


HoRUEUM  VTTLOARE  (Barley), 
i  used  bv  man  as  far  back 


298  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Use.  —  Barlev  at  the  present  day  is  not  largely  used  as  a  bread  plant.  It  is 
regarded  us  a  valuable  fattening  feed  for  cattle.  In  England  and  Germany  it 
forms  the  beer-making  grain.  In  Holland  and  north  Germany  it  is  used  for 
distilling,  and  is  the  principal  grain  from  which  whiskey  and  Hollands  are 
distilled. 

It  is  used  to  thicken  soups,  and  sparingly  for  porridge  and  cakes.  Pearl 
barley  is  prepared  by  removing  the  hull,  and  is  cooked  as  rice  is.  In  northern 
Scotland  and  adjacent  isles  it  is  an  important  bread  grain,  and  with  oats  con- 
stitutes a  large  part  of  bread  material. 

Marts.  —  For  Russia  the  principal  markets  are  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea, 
and  Riga  on  the  Baltic  ;  for  Turkey,  Constantinople  and  Rodosto  on  the  Sea 
of  Marmora ;  for  France,  Marseilles  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  Havre  on  the 
English  Channel ;  for  Germany,  Hamburg  on  the  Elbe,  and  Bremen  on  the 
Weser.  In  the  United  States  the  markets  are  local,  being  confined  to  brewing 
centers,  as  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Milwaukee,  etc. 

AVENA,  L.  Spikelets  paiiicled,  each  having  2  to  5  flowers  ;  glumes 
2,  loose,  membranous,  and  without  terminal  awns,  about  as  long  as 
the  paleje,  the  lower  one  usually  toothed  at  the  top,  with  a  twisted 
awn  on  the  back ;  the  upper  one  awnless,  with  two  keels ;  scales 
forked  and  large ;  stamens  3 ;  stigmas  2,  sessile.  Fruit  subterete, 
sulcate  on  the  upper  side,  summit  hairy.  Annual  with  pendulous 
spikelets,  or  perennial  with  erect  spikelets. 

A.  sativa,  L.  (Oats.)  Stem  2  to  4  feet  high,  smooth.  Leaves  about  a 
foot  long,  linear  or  linear-lanceolate,  nerved  and  rough;  sheaths  striate  and 
loose,  ligulae  cut;  panicle  loose  and  nodding;  spikelets  all  with  peduncles, 
and  hanging ;  lower  floret  usually  with  an  awn  on  the  back,  upper  one  awn- 
less.    Annual.     Flowers  in  July.     Fruits  in  August. 

Oats,  like  wheat  and  the  other  cereals,  have  a  tapering  stem  and  numerous 
root  leaves,  and  possess  the  same  habit  of  tillering  ;  but  the  plant  is  wholly 
different  in  its  inflorescence  and  the  form  of  its  head,  which  in  wheat,  rye,  and 
barley  is  a  compressed  spike,  or  compound  compressed  spike,  whose  spikelets 
are  sessile.  In  the  oat  the  head  is  a  loose  panicle ;  the  branches  near  the  base 
of  the  head  in  some  cases  are  four  inches  long,  decreasing  towards  the  top, 
forming  a  pyramidal  or  conical-shaped  head.  Some  varieties  have  the  branch- 
ing all  on  one  side,  and  on  that  account  are  called  one-sided  or  secund  oats. 

As  this  grain  is  raised  from  the  seed,  it  departs  from  the  specific  form,  pro- 
ducing varieties. 

The  A.  sativa,  however,  is  very  constant,  and  little  or  no  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  perpetuation  or  improvement  of  its  varieties.  A  large-grained 
secund  form  and  a  black-seed  variety  have  in  turn  attracted  the  notice  of  cul- 
tivators, but  neither  of  these  has  become  constant  enough  to  gain  importance. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  range  of  oats  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  any 
of  the  cereals  before  described.  It  endures  a  colder  climate  than  any  other, 
but  does  not  fill  well  south  of  the  fortieth  parallel  in  the  north  temperate  zone  ; 
in  the  regions  of  no  frost  it  does  not  fruit,  except  in  elevations  far  above 
the  sea. 

Etymology.  —  Arena,  the  botanic  name  of  the  oat,  was  given  by  Linnaeus, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Celtic  word  alen,  eat.     The  specific 


GRAMINE.E. 


299 


name  sativa  means  "  sown,"  or  "  c-iiltivate.l."     Oats,  thr  common  name,  is  sup- 

posed  to  come  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  ata,  food.     These  derivations  are 

not  entirely  clear,  but  are  the  most  probable. 

Historf/.  — The  native  country  of  this  grain  is  supposed  to  be  west-central 

Asia  and  east-central  Euro])e.     It  was    knov.ni  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and 

Homans,  and  was  used  by  them  to  feed  horses  and  cattle.     It  also  constituted 

the  food  of  the  slaves  and  plebeians.     It  was  found  in  the  Swiss  Lake-dwell- 
ings and  in  the  ancient  tombs  in  (iermany. 

Though  it  po.ssesses  less  nutritive  material  tlum  either  wheat  «»r  rve,  it  has 

held  and  still  holds  an  important  place  as  a  food  plant.     It  is  found  upon  the 

tables  of  the  ricli,  as  well  as  of  the  poor  in  Great 

Britain,  northern  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States 

and  Canada.     As  a  feed  for  live  stock  it  is  as  highly 

valued  in  the  British  Isles  as  is  maize  in  the  United 

States. 

In  attestation  of  its  value  as  a  bread  plant  as  well 

as  for  feed,  the  following  anecdote  is  in  point.     Dr. 

Johnson,   the    English   lexicographer,    had   a   dee])- 

rooted  di.slike  for  the  Scotch,  and  lost  no  opportunity 

to  make  it  manifest.     At  one  time,  in  conversation 

with   a   Scotch   gentleman.    Dr.  Johnson   remarked 

that  oats  were  a  grain  that  Englishmen  fed  to  their 

horses,  but  that  Scotchmen  ate  it  themselves.      To 

which    the    gentleman    with    characteristic    Scotch 

readiness  replied :  "  Indeed  it  is  true ;  but  see  what 

horses  you  have  in  England,  and  what  superior  men 

we  have  in  Scotland." 

Cultivation.  —  Oats  need  a  generous  soil  to  vield 
large  crops.  The  ground  is  prepared  by  the  plough 
and  harrow ;  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  in  most 
countries,  though  in  Scotland  it  is  sown  in  drills  and 
worked  with  a  hoe.  It  is  sown  as  soon  as  the  frost 
leaves  the  ground  in  the  early  spring,  and  ripens 
about  the  first  of  August.  It  fills  best  where  the 
days  are  sunny  and  the  nights  cool.  The  market 
value  of  oats  varies  according  to  qualitv  ;  northern 
oats,  so-called,  —  that  is,  oats  grown  in  a  cool  climate, 
—  are  preferred.  In  good  soil  and  a  cool  climate  an 
average  yield  is  forty-five  bushels  to  the  acre,  hut 
uncommon  yield. 

Use.  — In  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  north  of  Europe,  especiallv  in  Norway, 
oats  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  bread  material.  Thev  are  used  as  "a 
porridge,  cooked  with  milk,  or  made  into  a  thick  pmhling'and  eaten  with 
milk;  they  are  also  eaten  in  the  form  of  griddlo-cakes  or  "scons."  In  most 
countries  where  horses  are  used,  oats  are  the  stajde  feed.  Ordinarily  they 
are  be.st  when  ground ;  but  the  trainers  of  race-horsos  prefer  to  feed  the  oats 
to  them  in  the  grain,  since,  when  thus  fed.  the  horse  needs  no  hav,  or  not  so 
much. 

The  grain  of  oats  is  largely  composed  of  starch  ;  it  contains  al.<o  sugar,  gum, 
and  oil.  About  12  per  cent  of  its  substance  is  a  proteid.  known  to  chenu'sts  as 
avenine.  a  substance  resembling  casein.  It  is  mixed  with  barley  in  the  manu- 
facture of  whiskev.     Its  chnff  is  u.^^ed  for  fiUinir  beds. 


AVEXA    SATIVA    (O.lts) 

dxtv  bushels  is  not  r 


300  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY. 

SETARIA,  Beauv.  (Millet.  Bengal  Grass.)  Inflorescence  a  spike- 
like panicle ;  spikelets  2-flowered,  surrounded  by  persistent  bristles ; 
the  upper  floret  perfect,  lower  one  staniinate  or  neutral  or  wanting ; 
lower  glume  usually  short.  Stamens  in  the  perfect  flowers  3,  the  col- 
lateral scales  truncate,  fleshy,  and  smooth.  Number  of  styles  2, 
terminal,  elongated.  Stigmas  plumose ;  inflorescence  a  spike.  Seeds 
free  and  compressed. 

S.  Italica,  Beauv.,  Var.  Germanica,  Kunth.  Stem  or  culm  2  to  5  feet  high, 
terete,  leafy.  Leaves  from  6  to  15  inches  long,  linear-lanceolate,  broad,  flat, 
and  finely  serrate  on  the  edges,  clasping  the  stem  in  a  striate  sheath ;  spike 
compound,  yellowish  or  purplish,  oblong,  ovoid,  or  somewhat  cylindrical; 
rachis  hirsute,  hairs  long.     Flowers  in  July.     Fruit  ripens  in  August. 

Geography.  —  It  grows  well  where  oats  and  rye  can  be  successfully  culti- 
vated ;  it  has  escaped  in  America,  and  is  ranked  among  the  weeds  when  with- 
out cultivation. 

Etymology.  —  Setaria  is  from  the  Latin  word  seta,  a  bristle,  on  account  of 
the  bristly  character  of  the  spikelet  involucres.  The  specific  name  Italica 
denotes  the  plant's  home  ;  and  the  name  of  the  variety  indicates  that  it  arose 
in  Germany.  Millet  is  from  the  French  millet,  diminutive  of  mil,  the  old 
French  name  of  the  plant.  Bengal  grass  is  named  from  Bengal,  where  this 
plant  is  native. 

History.  —  Setaria  is  one  of  the  grains  which  the  Emperor  of  China  sows  at 
a  public  ceremony  which  has  occurred  annually  since  2700  b.  c,  and  it  is 
believed  to  be  native  to  China,  Japan,  and  India.  Its  cultivation  spread  toward 
the  west  through  Russia.  It  is  found  in  the  Swiss  Lake-dwellings  of  the  Stone 
Age.  It  is  either  completely  naturalized  or  native  to  western  Asia,  southern 
Europe,  and  Egypt.  Though  cultivated  for  forage,  it  is  so  inferior  in 
every  way  to  oats  that  little  attention  is  paid  to  its  improvement.  There 
are  a  number  of  species,  but  the  var.  Germanica  is  altogether  superior  to 
the  others. 

Use.  —  This  plant  is  grown  in  Italy  for  seed,  used  to  feed  caged  birds. 

Order  LXII.     CONIFERS.     (Cone  Family.) 

Flowers  in  catkin-like  spikes,  monoecious  or  dioecious,  naked,  or 
without  floral  envelopes.  Staminate  flowers  composed  of  anther- 
bearing  scales  ;  catkins  longer  than  broad.  Pistillate  catkin  more  or 
less  conical,  subglobular -or  cylindrical,  with  few  or  many  flowers, 
occasionally  1-flowered ;  ripened  catkin  becoming  a  strobile  or  conical 
subglobular  body,  formed  of  woody,  imbricated  scales,  bearing  1  — 
many  naked  ovules,  with  2-15  cotyledons.  Seed  in  most  cases  fur- 
nished with  a  membranous  wing,  sometimes  solitary,  in  a  fleshy  cup. 
Leaves  simple,  needle-shaped,  alternate,  linear  or  lanceolate,  in  some 
cases  in  groups,  inclosed  at  the  base  in  a  membranous  sheath,  resinous. 
Trees  or  shrubs. 

No.  of  genera,  32  ;  species,  300  ;  temperate  zones  and  mountains. 

PINTJS,  L.  Evergreen  trees,  ranging  from  30  to  100  feet  in  height. 
Leaves  linear,  grouped,  2  to  5  in  a  group,  very  rarely  solitary,  inclosed 
at  the   base   in    a   scaly  sheath.     Male  flowers  grouped  in   catkins. 


COXIFER.E.  801 

Female  floweis  in  cones  mostly  ovate,  their  scales  dry,  thickened  at 
the  tips  and  spiny,  inclosing  2  ovules.  Cotyledons  :i  or  none. 
Flowers  appear  in  spring ;  seeds  mature  in  the  autumn  of  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

Travellers  and  naturalists  speak  of  the  pine  forests  of  Carolina  and  Missis- 
sippi as  possessing  au  unsurpassing  roniautic  beauty.  The  tall  trunks  rising 
50  to  70  feet  without  a  branch,  witii  no  undergn^wtli  to  break  the  view,  the 
branches  festooned  with  the  gray  tillandsia  mingling  and  contrasting  with 
the  deep-green  foliage,  give  the  appearance  of  a  vast  decorated  roof  supported 
by  a  countless  number  of  graceful  colunnis,  which,  fading  away  in  the  dark 
distance,  present  a  scene  whose  beauty  is  exceeded  only  In-  its  grandeur. 
These  valuable  piue  forests  are  undergoing  rapid  destruction,  and  unless 
some  mode  of  economic  forestry  be  at  once  adopted,  this  valuable  timber  will 
soou  be  exhausted. 

1.  P.  monophylla,  Torr.  and  Fremont.  (Single-leaved  Nut-pine.)  Small 
tree,  branching  irregularly,  forming  an  unsymmetrical  head.  Bark  ]>ale,  and 
falling  off  in  plates.  Leaves  solitary,  tapering,  1|  inches  long,  terminating 
iu  a  spine  ;  sheaths  one  third  to  half  an  inch  in  leugtli.  Male  flowers  inclosed 
by  6  bracts ;  cones  nearly  glol)ular,  about  2  inches  in  diameter ;  seeds  long 
egg-shaped,  half  an  inch  in  lengtli,  sliell  thick,  yellowish-brown ;  cotyledons 
10  or  less. 

Geography.  —  The  nut-piue  is  an  American  tree ;  the  zone  of  growth  is 
between  the  parallels  of  30°  and  45°  north  latitude.  It  grows  along  tlie 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  at  great  elevations,  iu  arid 
localities. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Pinus  is  derived  from  the  Latin  piniis,  a  ])ine-tree.  Mouo- 
phylla  is  from  the  Greek  fx6t/us,  one,  and  <pvWov,  leaf,  one-leaved,  referring  to 
the  solitary  leaf. 

Use.  —  The  tree  is  of  no  value  iu  planted  grounds  on  account  of  its  small 
size  and  irregular  branching.  The  wood  is. hard,  and  makes  excellent  fuel; 
it  is  too  small  for  use  as  lumber.  The  fruit  is  sweet  and  edible ;  it  cou.sti- 
tutes  an  important  article  of  food  for  the  wandering  aborigines  of  the  Pacific 
slope.  It  is  collected  and  sold  to  passengers  on  the  line  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railway. 

2.  P.  Austriaca,  Iloffm.  (Austrian  Pine.)  Synonym,  P.  nigra,  Link.  Stem 
from  80  to  120  leet  in  height.  When  growing  iu  open  grounds  it  forms  a 
subcyliudrical  head,  branching  regularly,  though  the  branches  are  crooked. 
Bark  grayish.  Leaves  long,  rigid,  slender,  mucrouate  iu  twos,  incurved,  and 
inclosed  in  short,  dark-green  sheaths ;  cones  2  to  3  inches  long,  curved,  light- 
brown  ;  scales  smooth,  shining,  armed  with  a  blunt  spine. 

Geofjraphi/.  —  Its  geographical  range  is  Lower  Austria,  Carinthia,  Styria, 
and  tlie  neighboring  regions. 

Eti/wolof/i/.  —  The  sjiecific  name,  as  well  as  the  common  name  <»f  this  tree, 
is  from  the  country  where  it  is  found  native,  Austria. 

History.  —  It  is  not  long  since  it  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  nurserymen 
and  planters.  Its  fine  head,  hardy  character,  and  deep  dark-green  foliage 
have  brought  it  into  favor. 

Use.  —  The  tree  is  valuable  for  ornamental  ])urpo!<es,  and  is  found  iu  mo.st 
planted  grounds.     The  wood  is  good  for  lumber  and  for  fuel. 


302 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


3.  P,  strobus,  L.  (White  Pine.  Weymouth  Pine.  Apple  Pine.  Sapling 
Pine.  New  England  Pine.  Pumpkin  Pine.)  Trunk  50  to  160  feet  in  height, 
from  3  to  7  feet  in  diameter.  With  other  timber  the  stem  frequently  rises  to 
the  height  of  80  feet  without  a  branch.  Branches  whorled  in  the  young  trees. 
Bark  light  gray.  Leaves  3  to  4  inches  long,  bluish-green,  in  fives,  and  glau- 
cous, forming  a  soft,  beautiful  foliage  ;  sheaths  deciduous  ;  cones  5  to  6  inches 
in  length  ;  scales  1  to  2  inches  long,  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch  wide ; 
seed  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  obovate,  tapering  to  a  point 
below  with  a  wing ;  cotyledons  6  to  5. 

Geography.  —  It  is  native  to  all  parts  of  North  America,  from  the  Atlantic 
west,  reaching  as  far  south  as  Virginia. 


PiNus  STROBUS  (White  Pine). 


Etymology  and  History.  —  Strobus  is  the  Latin  for  an  odoriferous  gum.  It 
was  successfully  grown  in  the  grounds  of  Lord  Weymouth  (England),  and 
was  hence  called  Weymouth  pine.     It  was  introduced  into  England  in  1705. 

Use.  —  This  tree  is  a  symmetrical  grower ;  it  forms  a  beautiful  object,  and 
produces  a  pleasant  contrast  with  other  evergreens  in  planted  grounds. 

The  wood  is  fine-grained,  white,  and  free  from  resin,  strong,  easily  worked, 
takes  a  good  polish,  and  does  not  warp  easily.  It  is  highly  prized  in  carpen- 
try and  in  joiner's  work.  The  woodwork  of  the  insides  of  dwellings,  doors, 
sashes,  floors,  wainscoting,  etc.,  are  largely  composed  of  white  pine.  It  is  the 
most  valuable  lumber  tree  in  the  United  States. 

4.  P.  mitis,  Mx.  (Yellow  Pine.  Spruce  Pine.)  Synonym :  P.  variabilis, 
Pursh.  Trunk  30  to  80  feet  high.  18  inches  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  branching 
regularly ;  bark  dark  and  rough.  Leaves  channelled,  slender,  3  to  5  inches 
long,  in  twos  or  threes,  inclosed  in  lengthened  sheaths,  bluish-green,  scattered 
over  the  branches.  Cones  lateral,  conical,  or  egg-shaped,  2  iaclies  long,  soli- 
tary ;  seeds  small,  with  reddish  wings. 


roNTFKR^. 


303 


Gtuyraphii.  —  I'ho  P.  niitis  is  t'ouiid  in  tlie  eastern  L'uited  States,  frmn  New 
Kuglaud  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  attains  its  full  size  south 
of  Virgiuia,  and  flourishes  in  the  hot  sands  of  tlie  ( 'aroliuas  and  the  Gulf 
states. 

Etymologij. —  Mills,  the  spe«-ihc  uanie  of  tliis  pine,  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
mitis,  soft,  or  tender,  and  is  due  to  the  delicate  feel  of  the  soft  youug  leaves. 
Variabilis,  Latin  for  variable,  refers  t(j  tlie  inconstant  number  of  leaves  in  a 
oluster,  —  usually  2,  but  occasionally  :i.  Yellow  pint  refers  to  the  color  of  the 
wood.     The  origin  of  the  uame  spruce  pine  is  not  apparent. 


PlNUS   8VLVE8TRIS   (Scotcll   Piue). 


Use.  —  The  P.  niitis  is  sparingly  used  in  planted  grounds  ;  it  forms  a  sym- 
metrical pyramidal  head,  and  its  bluish-green  foliage  makes  it  a  desirable 
ornamental  tree.  The  wood  is  rich  in  resin,  fine-grained,  and  takes  a  good 
polish  ;  it  is  used  for  flooring,  and  of  late  years  ha.s  been  largely  used  in  naval 
architecture,  taking  the  place  of  oak,  especially  for  decks. 

5.  P.  sylvestris,  Ait.  (Scotch  Pine.  Scotch  Fir.)  Trunk  fiO  to  100  feet  high, 
sometimes  reaching  the  diameter  of  6  feet.  Branches  somewhat  straggling, 
forming  a  picturesque  head.  Grows  rapidly  in  planted  grounds.  The  new 
gro\vth  is  frequently  crooked  by  its  own  weight  before  it  becomes  hardened, 
by  reason  of  which  the  trunk   is  frecjuently  very  crooked.     Leaves  rigid,  in 


304  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

pairs,  1^  to  3  inches  long,  twisted,  bluish-green ;  sheaths  short,  and  torn ; 
cones  conical,  ovate,  2  to  3  inches  long,  color  grayish-brown ;  point  4-sided, 
recurved.     Seeds  small,  with  a  long  reddish  wing.     Cotyledons  5  to  7. 

There  are  about  a  dozen  varieties,  for  as  it  is  propagated  from  the  seed  it 
sports  freely. 

Geography.  —  Its  home  is  in  the  upper  and  northern  exposures  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  Tyrolese,  Swiss,  and  Vosgian  mountains  It  forms  exclu- 
sive forests  throughout  P^urope  and  northern  Asia,  and  its  trunks  are  found 
in  great  abundance  buried  in  the  peat  bogs  of  Great  Britain ;  hence  the  name 
bog  fir.  It  grows  with  great  rapidity  in  almost  any  soil.  On  account  of  its 
straggling,  irregular  branching,  it  forms  a  picturesque  rather  than  a  beautiful 
object ;  yet  it  is  a  favorite  with  nurserymen  and  amateurs. 

Eti/mologi/.  —  Pitius  sylvestrls  maybe  translated  "  the  pine  of  the  woods." 
The  common  name,  Scotch  pine,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  its  home  is  Scot- 
laud,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  it  is  indigenous  there. 

Use.  —  The  pinus  sylvestris,  besides  being  a  favorite  ornamental  tree,  is  for 
Europe  what  the  pinus  strobus  is  for  America ;  it  is  the  red  and  the  yellow 
deal  of  England ;  it  enters  into  the  structure  of  buildings,  and  is  largely  used 
in  naval  architecture  all  over  Europe. 

6.  P.  resinosa,  Ait.  (Red  Pine.)  Synonyms :  P.  rubra,  Mx.  P.  Canadensiss 
bifolia,  Du  Hamel.  Trunk  varying  in  size  from  50  to  80  feet  in  height,  and 
2  feet  in  diameter,  branching  regularly ;  when  standing  alone  forming  a 
symmetrical  head.  Bark  smooth  and  red.  Leaves  in  pairs,  channelled,  and 
semi-cylindrical,  dark-green,  4  to  6  inches  long,  appearing  near  the  ends  of 
the  branches  ;  sheaths  long.  Cones  egg-shaped,  2  inches  long,  in  clusters,  on 
short  peduncles ;  scales  unarmed  ;  wood  fine-grained,  moderately  charged  with 
resin,  heavy,  strong,  and  very  durable. 

Geography.  —  Its  home  is  northeastern  North  America,  from  Canada  to 
southern  Pennsylvania. 

Etymology.  —  Resinosa  is  from  the  Latin  resina,  resin,  due  to  the  resin- 
bearing  character  of  the  wood,  although  it  is  one  of  the  least  resinous  of  the 
pines.  Rubra  is  from  Latin  ruber,  red,  referring  to  the  color  of  the  bark. 
Canadensis  bifoUa  is  Latin,  meaning  Canadian  two-leaved  pine. 

Use.  —  The  wood  of  the  red  pine  is  hard  and  strong,  valuable  for  frames 
of  buildings,  and  for  boards  and  planks.  It  is  used  for  flooring  and  wain- 
scoting. 

7.  P.  rigida,  Miller.  (Pitch  Pine.)  Trunk  40  to  70  feet  in  height,  branched 
irregularly.  Bark  dark,  deeply  furrowed.  Leaves  in  threes,  rigid,  6  inches 
long,  sheaths  short.  Cones  ovoid,  pyramidal,  in  clusters  ;  scales  tipped  Avith 
short,  stout,  reflexed  spines  ;  seed  nearly  smooth  ;  cotyledons  5  ;  Mood  heavy, 
with  resin. 

Geography.  —  The  P.  rigida  is  native  throughout  eastern  North  America, 
but  north  of  Virginia  it  does  not  attain  to  its  full  size.  In  Georgia,  the 
Carolinas,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi  it  is  a  tree  60  to  80  feet  high. 

Etymology.  —  Rigida  is  from  the  Latin  rigidus,  stiff,  referring  to  the  leaf. 
Pitch  Pine  owes  its  name  to  the  sap  which  exudes  from  the  bark. 

Use.  —  The  pitch  pine  is  used  in  the  South  for  the  manufacture  of  turpen- 
tine, resin,  and  tar.  The  wood  is  very  hard,  takes  a  fine  polish,  is  much  used 
for  tloors  and  ship  building,  and  is  excellent  fuel. 


CONrFERTE.  805 

8.  P.  cembra,  L.  (Swiss  riiie.  Stone  Pine.)  'F>iink  50  to  80  feet  iu 
heiglit,  brauchiug  iu  wliorls,  hniuches  seiui-uprighi.  Hark  smooth  aud  dark. 
Leaves  in  fives,  2  to  3  iuches  loug,  triangular,  slender,  straight,  crowded, 
dark-green,  sheaths  falling.  Cones  egg-shaped,  3  inches  long ;  scales  blunt, 
hooked  ;  seeds  large,  wedge-shaped,  shells  hard  ;  cotyledons  about  13 ;  .seeds 
edible. 

There  are  two  varieties  to  be  found  in  planted  grounds. 

Var.  Siberica,  Loudon.  Leaves  shorter,  lighter  green,  and  longer  cones ; 
said  to  be  indigenous  to  eastern  Siberia. 

Var.  pygmaea,  Fischer.  Dwarf,  2  to  4  feet  in  height.  Leaves  short ;  coues 
globular.     Found  iu  dry,  sterile  grounds  and  rocky  hills. 

Geography.  — The  pinus  cembra  may  be  found  in  a  range  of  territory 
extending  from  the  mountains  of  Switzerland,  through  Austria,  northeastward 
to  Siberia.     It  adai)ts  itself  to  almost  any  soil  or  climate. 

Etymolofji/.  —  The  specific  name  of  this  tree  signifies  "  pine  ;  "  so  that  /nrius 
cembra  may  be  translated  "  piue  pine."  The  common  name,  stone  pine,  is  due 
to  the  hard  shell  of  the  seed. 

Histon/.  —  The  stone  piue  was  introduced  into  planted  grounds  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was  brought  from  elevations  in  the 
Alps,  ranging  from  four  thousand  to  six  thousand  feet. 

Use. — The  Swiss  stone  pine  is  a  favorite  evergreen  with  amateurs,  on 
account  of  its  symmetry  of  growth,  its  compact  branches,  and  its  deep  green 
foliage.  Its  slow  growth  adapts  it  to  the  wants  of  those  who  have  small 
grounds.  It  bears  the  knife  well,  and  can  be  kept  back,  and  almost  dwarfed. 
The  wood  is  .soft,  has  a  fine  grain,  takes  a  good  polish,  aud  is  a  favorite 
wood  for  joiners,  turners,  and  carvers.  Large  quantities  are  used  iu  Switzer- 
land in  the  manufacture  of  toys.  It  also  furnishes  a  fragrant  resin.  The 
seeds  are  eaten  iu  Siberia. 

9.  P.  palustris,  L.  (Southern  Pine.  Green  Pine.  Long-leaved  Pine.  Broom 
Pine.  Yellow  Pine.  Pitch  Pine.  Georgia  Pine.  Red  Pine.  Fat  Wood.) 
Trunk  60  to  80  feet  high,  and  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  furrowed.  Leaves 
in  threes,  sometimes  reaching  the  length  of  4-8  inches,  dark-green,  crowded 
at  the  euds  of  the  branches-,  sheaths  long,  lanceolate,  light-colored;  cones 
cylindrical,  tapering  at  each  end,  10  iuches  long;  seeils  in  a  thin  white 
covering  or  testa. 

Var.  excelsa,  Loudon.  Whole  tree  larger.  Found  in  the  north  of  Euro))e ; 
said  also  to  have  been  seen  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast. 

Geography. — This  pine  has  a  narrow  geographical  limit,  which  extends 
from  southeastern  Virginia  south  to  middle  Florida,  thence  along  the  (iulf 
coast  to  Louisiana  and  Texas,  iu  a  strip  less  thau  200  miles  wide. 

Eti/mology.  —  The  name /)a/?<s/r/.s,  the  Latin  for  "  swampy,"  does  not  seem 
very  ap])ropriate,  as  this  ti-ee  does  not  grow  in  swamps.  The  number  of 
popular  or  common  names  applied  to  this  species  is  very  unusual,  due  no  doubt 
to  the  great  value  of  its  products 

Use.  —  The  pinus  palustris  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  our  timber 
trees  ;  no  other  yields  so  many  valuable  products.  The  wt)od  is  hard,  takes  a 
fine  polish,  aud  is  very  heavy,  weighing  4:>.r)2  j)ounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  and 
is  highly  valuable  for  building  purpo.ses,  furnishing  tinjber  for  the  frame  of 
a  building,  boards  for  the  covering,  beams  ami  planks  for  the  Ho<»r.>-.  aud 
material  for  the  joiner's  work.  It  is  also  excellent  fuel. 
Pk.  Fl  —  21 


306  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Turpentine  is  the  product  of  this  pine.  It  is  obtained  by  cutting  a  pocket- 
like cavity  in  the  side  of  a  tree.  The  wound  tlius  made  discharges  the  fluid 
into  the  pocket  or  box,  which  holds  about  three  pints.  These  cavities  fill  in 
about  ten  days ;  the  contents  are  then  removed,  two  grooves  are  cut  in  the 
bark  above  the  pocket  leading  to  the  cavity,  another  filling  takes  place,  and 
the  process  is  continued.  The  liquid  is  put  into  casks  made  on  the  spot,  aud 
hardens  or  becomes  a  semi-fluid,  and  forms  the  turpentine  of  commerce. 
There  are  in  the  markets  of  the  world  several  varieties  obtained  from  other 
coniferous  trees. 

In  America  a  single  person  attends  to  the  emptying  of  4,000  pockets, 
which  yield  in  a  season  sixteen  barrels,  Aveighing  net  320  pounds  to  the' 
barrel.  The  crude  turpentine  has  a  fixed  resin  dissolved  in  oil,  with  succinic 
acid. 

Spirits  of  turpentine  is  procured  by  distilling  crude  turpentine  and  water  ; 
the  water  and  spirits  go  over  together,  and  are  allowed  to  cool  in  a  vat.  The 
mass  will  arrange  itself  into  two  layers,  when  the  spirits  may  be  drawn  off 
into  vessels  for  market. 

Spirits  of  turpentine  is  largely  used  in  the  arts  for  dissolving  gum  resins, 
for  varnishes,  aud  for  mixing  paints,  and  before  the  discovery  of  petroleum 
was  used  for  illuminating  purposes ;  mixed  with  alcohol  it  formed  the  burning 
fluid  previously  used  for  illuminating.  As  a  medicine  it  is  diaphoretic  and 
anthelmintic,  acting  directly  upon  the  kidneys,  and  in  large  doses  it  is  power- 
fully cathartic.  It  is  used  by  veterinary  practitioners  as  a  liniment.  The 
annual  product  in  the  United  States  is  about  17,500,000  gallons.  Rosin  (or 
colophony)  is  a  residuum  of  distillation,  after  the  volatile  oil  of  turpentine  has 
gone  over. 

Tar  is  obtained  from  the  dead  branches  and  trunks  of  trees  that  have  been 
exhausted  by  six  or  more  years'  tapping.  The  wood  is  cut  into  suitable 
lengths  and  placed  on  end  in  a  pyramidal  stack  upon  a  floor  made  of  clay, 
well  pounded  and  concave,  outside  of  which  is  a  well,  also  lined  with  clay.  In 
arranging  the  wood  a  cavity  is  left  in  the  center,  and  filled  with  combustibles, 
such  as  dry  cones,  shavings,  etc. ;  the  whole  is  then  well  covered  with  earth,  a  few 
openings  being  left  around  the  base.  When  all  is  ready  fire  is  thrown  down 
among  the  combustibles  in  the  center,  and  when  well  lighted  the  top  is  closed. 
Great  heat  is  produced,  by  which  the  tar  is  liquefied ;  it  then  passes  down  into  the 
dish-like  floor,  whence  it  flows  through  an  opening  made  for  the  purpose  into 
the  well  outside,  from  which  it  is  ladled  into  barrels.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  Greeks  obtained  tar  by  a  process  precisely  similar,  centuries  prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  entire  annual  yield  of  tar  in  America 
is  about  100,000  barrels.  It  is  also  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  Norway 
and  Sweden. 

Tar  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  naval  cordage,  as  a  paint,  aud 
otherwise,  in  naval  architecture.  As  a  medicine  it  was  formerly  used  as  a 
diaphoretic,  and  as  an  ointment  for  scald  head,  and  the  vapor  was  inhaled  for 
lung  affections.  Tar  water,  that  is,  water  which  has  for  a  time  rested  upon 
tar,  is  also  used  for  stomach  disorders. 

Oil  of  tar  is  procured  by  distilling  tar. 

Pitch  is  a  solid  black  substance,  the  residuum  of  distilling  tar  for  tar  oil, 
and  is  largely  used  in  pavements,  and  for  waterproof  cements. 

Resin  oil  is  a  viscid  whitish  opalescent  liqxaid  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
resin,  and  was  formerly  used  as  a  lubricating  substance,  and  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  illuminating  gas. 


CONIFKRJE. 


307 


PICEA,  Don.  (Spruce.)  Leaves  scattered,  articulated  to  the  per- 
sistent base  of  the  petiole,  partly  tetragonal,  rigid.  Staniiuate  flowers 
solitary  in  the  axils,  the  connective  not  produced  as  a  scale-like 
appendage.  Scales  of  the  reflexed  cone  persistent,  mostly  concealing 
the  small  subtending  bract. 


1.  P.  nigra,  Liuk.  (Black  Spruce.)  Trunk  70  to  80  feet  high.  Branchlets 
spreading  linrizoutally.  Bark  smooth  aud  dark.  Head  pyramidal,  symmet- 
rical, aud  when  young  very  graceful.  Leaves  half  an  inch  long,  erect,  stiff, 
*4-si(led,  very  dark-green.  Cones  egg-shaped,  hanging,  al)0ut  2  inches  long, 
dark-purple,  changing  to  reddish-hrown  ;  scales  ellipsoid ;  margin  unevenly 
toothed. 

Geof/rap/ii/.  —  This  tree  was  introduced  into  England  in  1700,  and  grows 
well  there;  hut  it  nowhere  rises  to  its  native  grandeur  except  in  its  forest 
home,  in  the  highlands  of  southern  Canada,  and  the  northern  United  States. 
Its  geographical  range  is  from  the  Atlantic  coast  west  to  the  head  waters  of 
the  Mississippi,  hetweeu  39°  and  50°  north  latitude. 

Etymologi/.  —  The  generic  name  is  from  the  Latin  piceus,  pitchy.  Nigra, 
the  specific  name,  is  Latin,  signifying  "black,"  given  to  tliis  tree  on  account  of 
the  heavy,  dark-greeu  color  of 
its  foliage  aud  bark.  It  forms  a 
fine  conical  head  with  a  taper- 
ing trunk.  The  common  name 
spruce  is  derived  from  the  old 
English  Spruce  or  Pruse,  Prussia, 
the  tree  having  been  first  known 
as  a  native  of  Prussia. 

Use.  —  The  black  spruce  is 
largely  used  in  planted  grounds. 
The  wood  is  hard,  light,  strong, 
and  elastic  ;  it  is  extensively 
used  for  architectural  purposes, 
for  framework  and  flooring  in 
the  construction  of  dwellings. 
( )n  account  of  its  elastic  aud  so- 
norous qualities  it  is  mnch  used 
for  piano  sounding-l)oards.  Picea  alba  (White  Spruce). 

2.  P.  alba.  Link.  (White  Spruce.)  Trunk  .50  feet  high.  1  to  2  feet  in  diam- 
eter, tapering,  forming  a  pyramidal  head.  Leaves  less  than  an  inch  long, 
sprinkled  over  the  branchlets,  needle-shaped,  curved  upwards,  light,  glaucous, 
green.  Cones  about  2  inches  long,  subcylindrical ;  scales  entire;  the  winged 
seeds  very  small. 

Geography. —  When  y<Muig  this  tree  is  very  beautiful,  and  rivals  the  cele- 
brated Norway  spruce.  Its  geographical  range  is  between  42°  and  67°  north 
latitude.  It  abounds  in  the  forests  of  southern  Canada  ami  the  northern 
United  States. 

Eti/mologj/.  —  Allxt,  the  specific  name,  is  Latin,  moaning  "  white,"  and  refers 
to  the  lic^ht  color  uf  the  foliage  ;  the  popular  name  is  due  to  the  same 
characteristic. 


308  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

Use.  —  The  white  spruce  is  a  favorite  with  nurserymen  and  amateurs,  for 
planted  grounds.  The  wood  is  stroug,  and  makes  excellent  lumber  for  build- 
ing purposes,  and  is  largely  used  for  floor  planks. 

3.  P.  excelsa,  Link.  (Norway  Spruce.)  Trunk  80  to  150  feet  high,  branched 
profusely.  As  the  branches  lengthen,  the  weight  of  their  ends  causes  them 
more  and  more  to  assume  a  horizontal  position,  and  finally  to  droop.  Leaves 
elongated,  and  though  scattered  assuming  a  semi  two-ranked  arrangement, 
quadrangular.  Cones  cylindrical,  terminal,  and  pendent,  sometimes  8  inches 
long  and  2  in  diameter ;  scales  broad,  apex  projecting  and  notched  ;  seed 
small,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  half  as  broad,  witli  a  wing.  Coty- 
ledons  7  to  9.  Flowers  in  May,  and  the  cones  ripen  the  following  year  in  the 
spring. 

This  tree  sports  freely,  and  there  are  about  a  dozen  well-marked  varieties, 
by  the  use  of  which  the  nurserymen  and  amateurs  are  enabled  to  produce 
varied  effects  in  planted  grounds. 

Geographxj.  —  The  Norway  spruce  is  indigenous  throughout  northern  and 
middle  Europe,  and  on  the  northern  declivities  of  the  mountains  of  southern 
France  and  Spain.  A^ast  forests  on  the  Alps,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  7,000 
feet,  are  wholly  composed  of  the  Norway  spruce  ;  but  it  is  said  to  attain  its 
perfection  in  the  forests  of  Norway,  its  home  and  the  country  from  which  it 
derives  its  common  name,  where  it  is  the  grand  monarch  of  the  woods.  It  is 
propagated  in  America  from  seeds  brought  from  Europe,  formerly  from 
Norway.     It  grows  to  its  full  size  in  deep,  damp  soils. 

Etijinology.  —  The  specific  name  of  this  tree,  excelsa,  is  the  Latin  for  lofty, 
and  usually  relates  to  excellence  in  rank  or  character,  not  to  size  or  height ; 
but  in  its  application  to  this  fine  tree,  it  seems  to  have  been  used  with 
the  latter  signification. 

Use.  —  On  account  of  its  hardness  and  the  symmetrical  head  it  forms,  its 
beautiful  deep  green,  and  the  patience  with  which  it  bears  the  knife,  the 
Norway  spruce  has  become  the  most  popular  and  the  standard  evergreen  in 
our  nurseries  and  in  planted  grounds,  for  ornamental  purposes.  In  Europe, 
though  not  in  America,  its  wood  is  used  for  architectural  purposes.  The  wood 
is  light,  elastic,  durable,  and  of  a  yellowish-white  color.  It  is  charged  with 
resin,  which  is  the  base  of  Burgundy  pitch.  The  young  trees  are  cut  when 
six  to  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  used  by  builders  for  scaffolding.  The  larger 
trees  are  sawed  into  planks  for  flooring.  On  account  of  its  elasticity  and 
sonorousness  it  enters  into  the  structure  of  musical  instruments,  —  especially 
of  the  backs  of  violins  and  of  piano  sounding-boards.  Cabinet  makers  line 
furniture  Avith  it,  and  it  is  largely  used  for  boxes  for  packing  merchandise. 
It  is  fine-grained,  takes  a  good  polish,  receives  a  black  stain  well,  and  is  es- 
pecially suitable  for  picture-frames  and  other  articles  that  are  gilded.  It  is 
also  highly  prized  by  carvers  for  their  purposes. 

ABIES,  Link.  (Fir.)  Flowers  monoecious  ;  aments  in  terminal  or 
nearly  terminal  clusters ;  scales  of  the  cones  thin  and  flat ;  seeds 
v\  inged.  Leaves  solitary,  and  without  sheaths  at  the  base,  scattered, 
bearing  a  slight  scar,  linear,  flat  above.  Staminate  flowers  solitary 
in  the  axils,  the  connective  being  barely  prominent  above  the 
anthers.  Scales  of  the  erect  cone  deciduous  with  the  seeds,  the  sub- 
tending bract  conspicuous,  but  not  thickened  nor  prickly  tipped,  often 
equalling  or  exceeding  the  ovuliferous  scale. 


COXTFKKyE.  309 

A.  balsamea,  Miller.  (Balsam  Kir.  Halm  of  Gilead.  Called  in  F)ij<i;lan(l 
American  Balsam  Fir.)  Syiiouynis  :  Pinus  balsamifera,  L.  ;  Picaabalsamifera, 
Marshall.  Trunk  20  to  50  feet  in  height,  I  to  -l  feet  in  diauKiter.  I>ark  dark- 
gray,  smooth  or  blistered,  with  resinous  vesicles.  Branches  nearly  horizontal, 
numerous  and  slender,  drooping  when  old.  Leaves  about  an  inch  long,  nar- 
row, linear,  spreading,  and  slightly  turned  hack,  green  above,  silvery  under- 
neath. Cones  cylindrical,  4  inches  long,  violet  colored,  scales  thin,  smooth, 
obo^'ate  or  subspatulate,  and  slightly  mucronate.     Seeds  small,  angular. 

Var.  longifolia.  Booth.  Leaves  longer,  branches  more  ujn-ight,  than 
A.  balsamea. 

\'ar.  variegata.  Knight.  Some  of  the  leaves  have  a  yellowish  cast,  con- 
trasting with  the  silvery  sheen  of  the  others,  and  forming  a  beautiful  object 
for  the  lawn.  This  feature  is  made  the  most  of  by  nurserymen  and  dealers 
in  trees. 

Geography.  —  The  home  of  the  l)alsain  tir  is  northeastern  \orth  America. 
Lower  Canada,  especially  Quebec,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  al)0und 
in  this  tree.  It  is  found  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  middle  states, 
especially  in  the  Adirondack  regions,  and  west  to  Wisconsin.  It  loves  a  cold, 
damp  soil. 

Etjpnologij.  —  Abies  is  the  Latin  for  fir  tree.  Balsamea,  Latin  for  "of 
balsam,"  is  due  to  the  resinous  character  of  the  bark.  Fir  is  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  f'ur/i,  a  kind  of  oak.     Balm  is  a  contraction  of  halsan,. 

Histori/.  —  The  balsam  fir  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Bishop  Compton  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
It  is  a  beautiful  object  while  young,  but  on  account  of  the  dense  rann'ficatinn, 
the  branchlets  and  leaves  of  the  lower  branches  near  the  trunk  die  for  want 
of  light,  and  the  tree  becomes  unsightly ;  on  this  account  it  has  been  for  many 
years  discarded  by  planters.  In  its  native  woods,  in  Nova  Scotia  jiartieularly, 
the  snow  lodging  upon  its  branches  causes  them  to  droop,  and  thus  partially 
conceal  the  silvery  sheen  of  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  In  the  hilly 
regions  of  Nova  Scotia  the  sides  of  the  wood-roads  are  walled  forty  to  fifty 
feet  in  height  with  the  silvery  green  of  this  beautiful  tree. 

Use.  —  The  wood  of  the  lialsam  fir  is  resinous,  yellow,  soft,  and  easily 
worked,  but  is  not  large  enough  to  be  valuable  for  building  purposes.  The 
gum,  or  resin,  known  as  Canada  Balsam,  is  obtained  from  the  bark  by  punc- 
turing it.  From  these  wounds  the  resin  fiows  out  in  a  viscid  fiuid,  about  the 
consistency  of  honey,  which  hardens  after  exposure  to  the  air. 

It  enters  into  the  materia  medica,  and  is  administered  in  the  form  of  pills 
for  stomach  troubles,  and  also  for  l)ronchial  affections.  It  is  transparent,  and 
used  to  incase  in.sects  and  other  perishable  »)bjects,  for  the  microscojje,  and  for 
sotting  the  glasses  of  microscopic  lenses,  and  is  an  ingredient  in  the  manufae- 
ture  of  varnish. 

LAEIX,  Mx.  (Larch.  Tamarack.  Ilackmatac.)  .\ments  scattered 
over  the  branches,  resembling  buds;  anthers  2-celled  ;  cone's  retlexed. 
subglobnlar ;  scales  persistent,  the  subtending  .scale  conspicuous ; 
seeds  winged.  Leaves  deciduous,  .soft,  thread-like,  in  fascicles  or 
scattered  on  this  year's  shoots. 

1.  L.  laricina,  Hu  ]^)i.  (.Vmorican  Larch.  Black  Larch.)  Trunk  SO  to  100 
feet   in  height.     Bark  dark  and  rough.     Branches  horizontal  or  lirooping; 


310 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


branchlets  pendent,  regular,  forming  a  graceful  pyramidal  head.  Leaves 
thread-like,  slender,  and  soft  to  the  touch,  in  fascicles  of  10  to  20.  Cones 
ovoid  when  young,  when  open  subglobular  and  purplish,  about  an  inch  long, 
and  nearly  the  same  in  diameter ;  scales  thin  ;  margins  turned  in.  Seeds 
small,  with  short  wings. 

2.  L.  Europaea,  DC.  (European  Larch.)  Trunk  same  as  No.  1.  Branchlets 
more  pendulous.  Leaves  an  inch  long,  obtuse,  and  flat,  bright-green.  Cones 
much  larger  than  No.  1,  long  egg-shaped,  l-li  inches  in  length.  Scales 
orbicular,  reflexed,  bracts  extending  beyond  the 
scales.  Seeds  small,  ovate,  winged.  Cotyledons 
about  7. 

Of  this  species  there  are  several  varieties ;  the 
most  interesting  one  is  a  dwarf,  remarkable  for 
its  pendent  or  weeping  branches. 

Geography.  —  The  American  larch  is  found 
native  as  far  south  as  southern  New  York,  and 
north  to  the  fiftieth  parallel,  in  a  belt  quite 
across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
European  larch  is  found  in  the  mountainous  re- 
gions of  middle  Europe. 

Etymology.  —  Larix,  the  generic  name,  and 
laricina,  the  specific  name  of  this  tree,  are  de- 
rived from  the  Celtic  lar,  fat,  due  to  the  resi- 
nous wood.  Tamarack  and  Hachnatac  are  Indian 
names  of  obscure  meaning.  Eiiropa;a  indicates 
that  this  species  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The 
common  name,  larch,  seems  to  be  merely  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  word  larix. 

History.  —  The  larch  was  much  used  in  Venice, 
in  the  period  of  its  prosperity,  for  frames  and 
other  parts  of  buildings ;  and  it  is  said  that 
buildings  framed  of  that  material  shoAV  no  signs  of  decay  even  at  the  present 
day.  The  paintings  of  some  of  the  great  masters  were  executed  upon  larch 
panels,  and  their  excellent  preservation  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  hardness  and 
perfect  condition  of  the  wood  upon  which  the  work  was  executed. 

Use.  —  The  larch  is  a  favorite  in  planted  grounds;  no  collection  of  trees 
would  be  considered  complete  without  it.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  strong 
and  durable ;  it  is  used  for  fencing,  for  agricultural  instruments,  bridges, 
and  for  heavy  and  strong  carriages  for  transporting  stone,  hardware,  coal, 
lime,  and  other  coarse  and  hard  articles.  It  is  prized  for  dock  logs  and  frames 
for  canal  gates.  When  the  larch  log  is  sawed  into  planks  it  is  necessary  to 
season  them  in  close  piles  to  prevent  warping.  The  bark  is  highly  charged 
with  tannin,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather.  The  resin  of  this 
tree  yields  Venice  turpentine,  which  is  used  in  medicine. 


Larix  laricina  (Larch). 


JTJNIPERTJS,  L.  (Juniper.  Cedar.)  Flowers  dioecious,  occasionally 
monoecious,  on  separate  branches  ;  aments  usually  axillary,  sometimes 
lateral,  small,  ovoid;  stamens  many,  inserted  on  all  sides  of  the  axis. 
Fertile  aments  imbricately  bracted  at  the  base.  Involucre  composed 
of  3  to  6  scales,  united  at  the  base,  a  concave  ovule  at  the  base  of  ench 


CONIFER^?^:. 


311 


scale.  Fruit  formed  of  the  fleshy  scales,  subglobose,  berry-like,  con- 
taining 1  to  3  hard  seeds.  Cotyledons  oblong,  2  in  number.  Leaves 
scale-like,  subulate,  lanceolate,  evergreen.     Trees  and  shrubs. 

I.  J.  communis,  L.  (Common  Juuiper.)  Trunk  ;")  to  10  feet  in  height  (in  cul- 
tivation 15  to  -20  ieet  liigh),  branches  numerous,  erect.  Leaves  in  whorls,  from 
half  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  sharply  lanceolate,  channelled,  keeled 
l)elow,  and  l)ristly  pointed,  green  underneath,  and  glaucous  above.  Sterile 
flowers  in  little  axillary  cones.  Fertile  flowers,  on  a  separate  plant,  axillary 
and  sessile.  Fruit  dark-blue,  subglobose  :  berries  ripening  tlie  next  year  after 
the  flower  appears  ;  sweet,  witli  a  taste  of  turpentine ;  they  contain  sugar,  and 
on  fermentation  yield  a  beverage  resembling  gin. 

Var.  pyramidalis  of  tlie  nurserymen  is  a  seedling,  and  is  a  very  compact, 
graceful  form  in  planted  grounds. 

Var.  prostrata  (synonyms:  Var.  alpina,  L.,  J.  nana,  Willd.)  is  a  prostrate, 
straggling  form,  covering  sometimes  an  area  of  tifty  square  feet ;  branchlets 
assurgent. 

2   J.  Virginiana.  L.     (Red  Cedar.)     Trunk  25  to  50  feet  in  height,  branches 


extended,  making  a  broad,  pyramidal  head, 
on  the  old  branches,  longer  and  sharper  on 
the  young  wood,  closely  iml)ricated,  and 
very  dark-green ;  the  fertile  and  sterile 
florets  on  separate  trees,  inconspicuous  in 
longish  terminal  aments.  Fruit,  a  blue 
berry,  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom,  size 
of  a  small  pea;  sap  wood  white;  heart 
wood  reddish,  light,  close-grainetl,  and  very 
durable.  It  sows  itself  and  sports  freely, 
producing  several  forms  as  to  foliage  and 
ramification,  one  of  which  is  sufficiently 
conspicuous  to  be  entitled  to  the  dignity 
of  a  variety. 

Var.  forma  cylindrica.  Stem  10  to  .30 
feet  high,  branching  profusely,  branches 
growing  nearly  ])arallel  with  the  trunk, 
forming  a  compact,  cylindrical  head,  mak- 
ing a  beautiful  object  in  the  landscape. 


Leaves  verv  small  and  scale-like 


JuNTPERus  VmoiNiANA  (Red  Cedar). 


.3.  J.  Bermudiana,  L.  (Pencil  Cedar.)  This  species  is  a  beautiful,  long-leaved 
variety  found  in  the  West  Indies.  The  wood  is  soft  and  close-grained,  and 
used  for  making  lead  pencils. 

There  are  other  cedars  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

Geograph I/.  — The  J.  communis  is  a  native  of  middle  and  western  Europe, 
northern  Asia,  and  North  America.  J,  Virginiana  is  a  native  of  North 
America  and  the  West  India  islands  ;  it  is  found  all  aloncr  the  eastern  coa.st 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  as  far  we.st  as  the  foothills  of  the  Kockv  .Mountains. 

Ef,/mo/orj,/.—J„n;penis  is  the  Latin  for  juniper,  from  jurenis,  voung,  and 
p.trere,  produce,  referring  to  the  presence  of  the  old  fruit  after  the  new  has 
appeared.     Cedar  is  from  the  Greek  K^Spos.  a  cedar-tree. 

Use.  — The  J.  communis  is  a  favorite  in  planted  jrrounds;  it  bears  the 
knife,  and  may  be  pruned  into  any  degree  of  dwarfage.     The  fruit  is  used  to 


312 


DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


flavor  gin,  and  in  medicine  is  administered  for  kidney  complaints ;  it  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  active  diuretics  known.  The  J.  Virginiaua  or  red 
cedar  of  North  America  is  used  sparingly  as  an  ornamental  tree,  Ijut  the  wood 
is  very  durable,  tine  grained,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  Its  durability  makes  it 
valuable  for  fencing  ;  its  fine  grain  adapts  it  to  tiue  cal>iuet  work  and  for  fancy 
boxes.  Trunks  are  also  made  of  it  for  storing  furs  and  woollens  to  protect 
them  against  the  depredations  of  the  moths,  to  which  its  odors  are  destructive. 
The  wood  of  this  species,  as  well  as  that  of  Bermudiaua,  is  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  lead  pencils. 


THUJA,  Tourn.  (Arbor  Vitae.)  Flowers  monoecious,  on  the  ends 
of  separate  branches  ;  sterile  flowers  in  an  egg-shaped  anient.  Anther- 
cells  4  in  number,  on  a  scale-like  connective  or  filament.  Fertile 
aments  or  cones  rough  or  angular,  subglobose  ;  scales  few.  Seeds 
winged,  2  under  each  scale,  covering  membranaceous.  Cotyledons  2. 
Leaves  evergreen,  imbricated  ;  scales  lying  close  to  the  flattish 
branchlets. 

T.  occidentalis,  L.  (American  Arbor  Vitse.)  Trunk  30  to  50  feet  high, 
and  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter,  branching  profusely.  Branches  upright  and  com- 
pact, forming  a  pyramidal  or  oblong  cylindrical 
head.  Leaves  small,  scale-like,  imbricated,  in  4 
rows  on  the  2-edged  branchlets.  Cones  egg- 
shaped  ;  scales  spreading  ;  seeds  winged.  The 
frond-like  l)ranchlets  are  densely  ramified,  and 
spread  in  a  lateral  direction.  The  leaves  when 
bruised  emit  an  aromatic  odor. 

Geographij.  —  The  T.  occidentalis  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  north  of  40°  north  latitude. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  England  as  an  orna- 
mental tree. 

Etymologi/.  —  Thuja  is  derived  from  tlie  Greek 
word  dvia,  an  African  tree  with  sweet-smelling 
wood.  Occidentalis  is  Latin  for  western,  and  re- 
fers to  the  western  world,  the  home  of  this  species. 
The  popular  name  arbor  vitce  is  Latin  for  "  tree 
of  life,"  and  is  supposed  to  arise  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  fruit  of  some  of  the  species 
is  used  for  medicine.  In  the  East  the  cypress  is  called  the  tree  of  life,  for  the 
reason  that  the  berries  are  supposed  to  be  a  remedy  for  all  diseases. 

Use.  —  The  Thuja  occidentalis  is  largely  used  for  ornamental  purposes  in 
planted  grounds.  It  bears  the  knife  well,  and  is  on  that  account  well  adapted 
for  hedging  purposes. 

The  wood  is  light,  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  furnishes 
excellent  material  for  fencing.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  casks  for  packing 


Thuja  occidentalis 

(Arbor  Vitae). 


TSTJGA,  Endl.  (Hemlock.)  Flowers  monoecious ;  aments  in  ter- 
minal or  nearly  terminal  clusters.  Scales  of  the  cones  thin  and  flat, 
reflexed  and  persistent,  nearly  hiding  the  subtending  bract.  Leaves 
linear,  flat,  and  somewhat  2-ranked. 


C()NIKEH/E. 


313 


T.  Canadensis,  Carr.  (Ilornlock  Sj)rnco.)  Trunk  ">()  to  100  foot  in  height, 
l)niiKhing  freely.  Hark  gray,  smooth  on  youug  trees,  hut  very  rough  and 
furrowi'd  on  old  trees.  Leaves  solitary.  Hat,  slightly  toothed,  hlunt  at  the 
apex,  in  2  ranks,  half  an  inch  long,  and  less  than  an  eiglith  of  an  inch  wide. 
Cones  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter  , 
.scales  suhorhic.ular,  half  an  inch  long;  wing  less  than  half  an  inch  hroad. 
Flowers  in  June;  seed  matures  in  the  following  year  in  June. 

Geocjraphy.  —  The  geographical  range  of  the  hemlock  is  confined  to  a  belt 
on  both  sides  of  the  forty-fifth  ])arallel,  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  reaching 
down  to  Pennsylvania  iu  mountainous  regions,  and  even  to  North  Carolina, 
and  as  far  north  as  Oregon  and  Hudson  Bay. 


TsuGA  Canadensis  (Hemlock  Spruce). 


Etymology. —  Tsuf/a  is  Japanese  for  yew-leaved  or  evergreen  The  name 
Canaflensis  comes  from  Canada,  the  home  of  the  tree.  Tlie  origin  of  hemlock, 
the  common  name,  is  not  so  easily  determined  ;  it  is  suggested  that  it  comes 
from  //e/H.tho  edge  or  border,  and  /or,  fasten,  inclose,  alluding  to  the  use  of  the 
tree  in  hedging.  Again,  hem  means  "injure"  or  "cripple,"  and  may  allnde 
to  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  cicuta,  called  hemlock.  The.se  inferences 
are  not  to  be  relied  upon,  and  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  name  must  be 
left  in  obscurity. 

History. — The  hemlock  is  an  American  tree;  it  was  taken  to  Europe  soon 
after  the  settlement  of  northoa.stern  America,  and  grows  well  in  the  northern 
parts  of  England. 

Use.  —  As  an  ornamental  tree  the  hemlock  is  a  favorite  in  large  grounds 
When  not  crowded  it  ri.«ies  to  the  height  of  40  to  80  feet,  a  perfect  jiyramid, 
its  lower  branches  resting  on  the  ground.  Its  foliage  is  the  most  debcato  of 
all  the  coniferjc.  It  bears  the  knife  well,  ami  makes  a  compact  and  beautiful 
hedge.     The  wood  is  soft,  easily  split,  and  has  a  very  coarse  grain  :  yet  it  is 


314  DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 

strong,  holds  a  uail  well,  requires  a  great  force  to  produce  a  cross  fracture, 
and  is  very  durable.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  frames  of  edifices,  for  joists  and 
for  sheathing,  being  the  cheapest  of  all  the  soft-wood  lumber.  The  lumber  is 
obtained  from  the  stripped  trunks,  which  are  sawed  into  13-feet  lengths, 
which  during  the  following  winter  are  drawn  to  the  frozen  streams  and  left 
till  the  spring  thaw,  when  they  are  floated  down  to  the  saw-mills,  where  they 
are  sawed  into  boards,  scantling,  and  ceiling  laths,  and  thence  sent  to 
market. 

The  bark  is  highly  charged  with  tannin,  and  is  used  in  immense  quantities 
for  manufacturing  leather.  It  is  obtained  by  felling  the  tree  in  the  early 
summer  when  the  sap  is  in  its  greatest  activity  ;  girdles  are  cut  around  the , 
trunk  and  large  branches  by  means  of  an  axe,  and  with  a  wedge-shaped  bar 
the  bark  is  stripped  ;  it  is  then  piled  to  dry.  Its  value  is  estimated  by  the 
cord. 

CHAMiECYPARIS,  Spach.  (Cypress.)  Flowers  monoecious,  <>n  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  same  tree,  in  terminal  catkins.  Staminate 
flowers  in  ovoid  aments,  4  anthers  under  the  scales.  Pistillate  flowers 
in  a  globular  cone  ;  ovules  bottle-shaped ;  scales  thick  and  woody, 
peltately  dilated,  bossed  in  the  middle  ;  cones  globose  ;  seeds  few.  with 
narrow  wings  attached  to  the  base ;  cotyledons  2,  or  3.  Trees  with 
closely  appressed  evergreen  leaves. 

1.  C.  thyoides,  L.  (Cupressus  thyoides,  L.)  (White  Cedar.)  Trunk  40  to 
80  feet  in  height,  and  1  to  3  feet  in  diameter.  Branches  somewhat  spreading, 
and  pendent  at  the  extremities.  Bark  brown,  ragged,  soft,  exfoliating  in 
strips.  Leaves  imbricated  in  four  rows,  short,  scale-like,  with  a  small  tubercle 
on  the  back  of  each.  Cones  in  groups ;  very  small,  globular  scales,  shield- 
shaped,  blunt-pointed  ;  seeds  small,  subglobular. 

There  are  many  species,  but  the  thyoides  is  the  most  important  in  eastern 
North  America. 

2.  C.  sempervirens,  L.  (Cupressus  sempervirens,  L.),  is  a  native  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Levant.  It  is  there  the  gloomy  sentinel  of  the  graveyard.  It  is 
pyramidal,  and  hence  the  emblem  of  death. 

3.  C.  pendula  (Cupressus  pendula),  of  China,  has  pendulous  branches ;  in 
habit  like  the  weeping  willow. 

Geography.  —  The  geographical  zone  of  the  chamsecyparis  is  from  30°  to  42° 
north  latitude.  In  ^Vmerica  it  extends  across  the  continent,  and  it  occupies 
about  the  same  zone  in  the  ( )ld  World.  It  is  found  sparingly  in  the  middle 
Atlantic  States,  especially  in  New  Jersey,  and  Avest  to  the  Great  Lakes,  but  it 
reaches  perfection  in  the  swamps  of  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 

The  cedar  swamps  of  New  Jersey,  made  famous  by  the  botanical  excursions 
of  Pursh,  Nuttall,  Michaux,  Bartram,  and  Gray,  have  since  their  day  been 
the  Mecca  to  which  every  young  botanist  longs  to  make  a  pilgrimage.  In 
these  swamps  a  very  important  industry  is  carried  on,  consisting  of  mining 
sunken  logs  of  the  cypress,  and  working  them  into  shingles  and  barrel 
staves. 

Etymology  and  History.  —  Chamcecyparis  is  derived  from  the  Greek  x«M«^' 
on  the  ground,  and  Kvirdpitra-os,  cypress,  from  kvw,  produce  or  contain,  and 
Trdpitros,  equal,  alluding  to  the  regularity  of  the  branches.     According  to  some 


conifp:r^..  -B15 

authors,  the  nameisderived  from  Ci/parissus,  sou  of  Tflephns,  who  f(jr  killiu^' 
the  stag  of  the  gods  was  transformed  into  a  cypress  tree,  l^ie  common  name 
was  derived  from  the  isle  of  Cvprus,  where  a  tree  of  tiiis  genus  ahouuded. 

^"^se.  —  The  wood  of  chamacyparis  thyoides  is  light,  soft,  and  easily  worked, 
has  a  fine  grain,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
trunks,  boxes  for  jjreserving  linen  and  woollen  goods,  shingles,  and  staves  for 
casks.  Cabinet-makers  use  it  for  drawers  in  fine  cabinet  ware  ;  and  large  use 
is  made  of  the  small  trees  by  builders  for  scaffolding  poles,  — the  poles  being 
light,  slender,  and  strong.  It  is  also  used  for  masts  for  small  vessels.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  durability.  The  doors  of  St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome  were 
of  cypress  wood  from  the  Levant,  and  were  found  to  be  quite  sound  after  a 
service  of  1,100  years.  Its  peculiar  l)itterness  preserves  it  from  the  attacks 
of  insects,  and  in  part  explains  its  durability. 


GLOSSARY. 


ab  uor'mal,  ciniti(tiii  lu  the  usual  or  natural 
structure. 

ab  o  rlg'i  iial,  original  in  the  strictest  sense. 

abSr'tion,  non-development  of  a  part. 

ab  rQpt',  terminating  suddenly. 

ab  sQrp'tiou,  the  act  of  tnhing  in  or  sucking 
up. 

ac  au  lSs'(;ent,  apparently  stemless. 

ac  ^Ss'so  ry,  something  added. 

ac  crSs'c^ent,  grou-ing  after  flowering. 

ac  Crete',  groicn  to. 

ac  cum'bent,  lying  against. 

5  gSph'a  lous,  without  head. 

iq'er  ose  or  S^'er  ous,  needle-shaped. 

a  che'ni  uni  (pi.  acheuia),  a  small,  dry, 
hard-shelled,  one-celled,  one-seeded,  inde- 
hiscent  fruit. 

Soil  la  myd'e  ous,  without  floral  envelopes. 

a  ^'Tc'u  lar,  flnely  needle-shaped. 

a'corn,  the  fruit  of  the  oak. 

a  cot  y  ISd'o  nous,  without  cotyledons. 

Sc'ro  gens,  summit  growers. 

a  cu'Ie  ate,  armed  ivith  prickles. 

acu'minate,  drawn  out  into  a  point. 

a  cute',  ending  in  a  sharp  angle. 

adglph'ous, /trtrm(/  the  stamens  joined  in  a 
frutern  ity. 

ad  e  n5ph'o  rous,  producing  glands. 

ad  her'ent,  growing  to. 

ad  he'sion,  the  union  of  organs  of  different 
kinds,  as  .ftamens  to  petals,  etc. 

Sd'nate,  growing  fast  to. 

ad  prSssed',  or  ap  prSssed',  brought  into  con- 
tact with,  but  not  united. 

ad  ven  tT'tious,  out  of  the  usutd  order ;  acci- 
dental. 

ad  vgii'tive,  applied  to  foreign  plants  spar- 
ingly introduced  into  a  country,  but  not 
naturalized. 

aera'tion,  same  as  respiration. 

ae  ry'gi  nous,  verdigris-colored. 

ses  ti  va'tion,  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a 
flower  in  the  bud. 

af  fTn'i  ty,  resemblance  in  fssential  organs. 

Sg'a  nious,  sexless. 

Sg'gre  gate,  assembled  close  toyether. 


a  glu  ma'ceous,   tcUhout   glumes;    same   as 

petaloid. 
a  j^res'tis,  growing  infields. 
air'  blSd'der,  a  sac  filled  with  air. 
air'  plants,  plants  whose  roots  are  in  the  air. 
a'kene,  or  a  ke'  ni  um,  an  indehiscent  seed- 
vessel  ;  a  nutlet. 
a'la  {pi.  ahe),  a  wing. 
al  a  bSs'trum,  a  flower-bud. 
a'late,  winged. 

alb6s'?eut,  whitish,  or  turning  white. 
al  bu'men,  a  deposit  of  nutritive   material 

within  the  seed -coats. 
al  bu'mi  nous,  like  albumen. 
al  bQr'num,  sap-wood. 
51 'g*,  sea  weeds. 

al  li  a'ceous,  having  the  odor  of  garlic. 
al  ISg'amous,  having  cross-fertUization. 
51'pTne,  belonging  to  high  mountains  above 

the  limit  of  forests. 
al  ter'nate,   distributed   singly  at   different 

heights  of  the  stem. 
51've  o  late,  u-ith  pits  like  the  honey-comh. 
Sm'ent,  a  deciduous  spike. 
am  en  ta'ceous,  catkin-like,  or  catkin-bearing. 
a  uior'phous,  without  definite  form. 
am  phi  car'pous,    producing    two    kimls    of 

fruit. 
am  phTt'ro  pons,  turned  both  ways. 
Sm'pho  ra,  a  pitcher-shaped  organ. 
am  plgc'tant,  embracing. 
am  plgx'i  caul,  clasping  the  stem,  as  the  ba.te 

of  some  leaves. 
am  pul  la'ceous,  su-elling  out  like  a  bottle  or 

bladder. 
am  yl  la'ceous,  5m'y  loid,  composed  of  starch  ; 

starch-like. 
anSl'y  sis  (botanical),  the  process  of  cla.i.fify- 

ing  and  finding  the  names  of  plants. 
ail  Sn'drous,  without  .stamens. 
an  Sn'ther  ous,  an  Sn'thous,  without  anthers. 
a  nas  to  mo'sis.  union  of  vessels  or  veins. 
a  nS'tro  pons,  having  the  ovule  inverted  at  an 

early  period  in   its  development,  .so   that 

the  rhidaza  is  at  the  apparent  aper. 
an  i;Tp'i  tal,  two-edged. 
an  'Irrn'fi  iiin,  the  stamens  oj  a  flower  taken 

together. 

817 


318 


GLOSSARY. 


an  dr5g'y  nous,  having  stamens  and  pistils 

on  the  same  peduncle. 
Sn'dro  phore,  a  colitmn  of  united  stamens,  as 

in  the  Malloiv. 
an  e  moph'i  loiis,  wind-loving,  said  oj  ivind- 

fertilized  flowers. 
an  frac'tu  ose,  boit  hither  and  thither,  as  the 

anthers  of  a  Squash. 
Sn'gi  o  sperms,  plants  whose  seeds  are   in- 
closed in  a  vessel. 
an'gu  lar,  a  kind  of  divergence  of  leaves. 
an  i  somber  ous,  having  the  parts  unequal  in 

number. 
an  i  so  pet'a  lous,  with  unequal  petals. 
an  i  soph'yl  lous,  having  the  leaves  of  a  pair 

unequal. 
an  not'i  nous,  yearly,  or  in  yearly  growths. 
Sn'nu  al,  yearly. 

an'nu  lar  cells,  cells  with  ring-like  markings. 
an'nu  late,  marked  by  rings,  or  furnished 

with  a  ring  like  that  of  the  spore-case  of 

most  ferns. 
an  te'ri  or,  adjacent  to  the  bract. 
an  the'la,  an  open  paniculate  cyme. 
an  thel  min^tic,  expelling  or  killing  worms. 
another,  the  part  of  the  stamen  that  contains 

the  pollen. 
an  ther  Td'i  um,   the    organ    in   cryptogams 

corresponding  to  the  anther  in  flowering 

plants. 
an  ther  Tf'er  ous,  anther -bearing. 
an  the'sis,  the  opening  of  the  flower  ;  flower- 
ing. 
an  tho  car'pous,  having  the  fruit  and  flower 

united. 
Sn'tho  phore,  a  stipe  between  the  calyx  and 

the  corolla. 
an  tr6rse',  facing  toward  the  anterior. 
a  pet''a  Ise,  plants  icithout  petals. 
a  pet'a  lous,  without  petals. 
a'pex,  the  top  or  point,  especially  of  a  leaf. 
aph'yl  lous,  without  leaves. 
ap'ic  al,  belonging  to  the  apex  or  point. 
a  pTc'u  late,   tipped   with   a   small,  distinct 

point. 
ap  o  car'pous,  having  the  several  pistils  of 

the  same  flower  separate. 
ap  o  pet'a  lous,   having   the  petals    entirely 

disconnected. 
a  poph'y  sis,  a  swelling. 
ap  0  sep'a  lous,  having  separate  sepals. 
ap  o  the'gi  um,  the  fructification  of  lichens 

forming  masses  of  various  shapes. 
ap  pend'age,  any  superinduced  part. 
ap  pen  dic'u  lar,  having  appendages. 
ap  pressed',  see  adpressed. 
5p'ri  cate,  to  grow  in  dry  and  sunny  places. 
ap'ter  ous,  without  wings. 
aquat'ic,  living  in  water. 
arach'noid,  resembling  cobwebs. 
ar  bo  re'tum,  a  collection  of  trees. 
ar'bor  ous,  tree-like. 
ar  ehe  go'ni  um,  the  organ  in  mosses  aiialo- 

gous  to  the  pistil  of  flowering  plants. 


arc'u  ate,  arched  or  curved  like  a  boiv. 

ar'e  nose,  growing  in  sand. 

a  re'o  late,  having  the  surface  divided  into 

little  spaces  or  areas. 
ar  gen'te  ous,  or  ar'gen  tate,  silvery. 
argil'lose,  or  argll'lous,  growing  in  clay. 
ar  gu'tus,  acutely  dentate. 
ar'il,  an  extra  seed-covering. 
aris'tate,  with   an  arista   or    awn,  as   the 

Barley. 
a  ris'tu  late,  short-awned. 
armed,  bearing  prickles,  spines,  etc. 
ar  rect',  upright  in  position. 
as  cend'ing  or  as  cend'ent,  arising  obliquely  ; 

assurgent. 
as  Qid'i  um,     a    tubular,     horn-shaped,    or 

pitcher-like  formation. 
Ss'cus,  a  sac  ;  the  spore-case  of  lichens  and 

some  fungi. 
as  per  gil'li  form,  shaped  like  the  brush  used 

to  sprinkle  holy  ivater,  as  the  stigmas  of 

many  grasses. 
Ss'per  ous,  rough  to  the  touch. 
as  sim  i  la'tion,  the  function  of  producing 

starch  or  other  plant  food. 
as  sQr'gent,  same  as  ascending, 
at'ropous  or  at'ro  pal,  not  inverted  ;  orthot- 

ropous. 
at  ten'u  ate,  becoming  slender  or  thin. 
au  ran'ti  a'ceous,  orange-colored. 
au're  ous,  golden. 
au  tog'a  my,  self-fertilization. 
awl'-shaped,  sharp-pointed  from  a  cylindri- 
cal base. 
awn,  the  bristle  or  beard  of  Barley  and  I  He 

plants. 
ax'ial  root,  the  main  root  grotving  (hnin. 

ward;  tap-root. 
ax'il,  the  angle  betiveen  the  petiole  and  the 

branch  on  the  upper  side. 
ax'il  la  ry,  growing  out  of  the  axils. 
Sx'is,  the  stem. 


B. 


bac'cate,  berry-like ;  covered  with  pulp. 
bac  te'ri  um,  the  smallest  organism  known; 

micro-organisms,  destitute  of  chlorophyll, 

which  multiply  with  marvelous  rapidity 

and  cause  putrefaction  and  disease. 
bSn'ner,  the  tipper  petal  of  a  papilionaceous 

flower. 
bar'bate,  bearded. 
barbed,  furnished   with  a  barb  or  double 

hook. 
bar'bel  late,  beset  with  stiff,  short  hairs,  as 

bri.^tles. 
bar  bel'lu  late,  diminutive  of  barbellate. 
bark,  the  outer  covering  of  an  exogenous  tree 

or  shrub. 
base,  the  extremity  of  any  organ  by  tchich 

it  is  attached  to  its  support. 
ba'si  fixed,  attached  by  Us  base. 


GLOSSARY. 


319 


bSs'i  lar,  attached  to  ihi  hnsr  ;  baxnl. 
bast-cellb,  long  cells  of  bark. 
beaked,  ending  in  an  extended  tip. 
beard'ed,  Itaring  tuj'ts  oj'  long  hairs. 
bl  ar  tie'u  late,  twice-jointed  ;  two-jointed. 
bl  au  Tie'u  late,  having  two  ears,  as  the  Jig- 
leaf. 
bi  cSl'Iose,  having  two  hard  spots. 
bi  cSr'i  nate,  two-keeled. 
biQlp'ital,   two-headed;    dividing  into  two 

parts. 
bl'color,  two-colored. 
bi  cSu'ju  gate,  twice-paired,  as  when  a  petiole 

forks  twice. 
bi  ciis'pid  ate,  with  two  points  or  cusps. 
bi  d6i/tate,  uith  two  teeth. 
bi  6n'ui  al,  of  two  ijears^  duration. 
bl'fid,  cleft  into  tao parts. 
bi  to'li ate,  uith  two  leajiets. 
bi  tQr'cate,  forked  ;  twice  forked. 
bij'u  gate,  bearing  two  pairs. 
bila'biate,  two-lipped. 
bi  ISm'el  late,  of  two  plates. 
bi'lobed,  two-lobed. 

bi  lo  (;enate,  divided  into  two  secondary  cells. 
bi  I5c'u  lar,  divided  into  two  cells. 
bl''nate,  two  by  two  ;  in  pairs. 
bino'dal,  having  two  nodes. 
bi  uo'mi  al,  having  two  names. 
bi  pSKmate,  twice  palmately  divided. 
bip'arous,   having    two    branches    or    axes 

{applied  to  a  cyme). 
bi  piii'uate,  twice  pinnate. 
bi  pin  nSt'i  lid,  twice  pinnatifid. 
bi  pin  nat'i  sect,  twice  pinnately  divided. 
btp'licate,  twice  folded  together. 
bi  se'ri  al,  bi  se'ri  ate,  occupying  two  rows, 

one  icilhin  the  other. 
bi  sgr^rate,  doubly  serrate  ;  as  when  the  teeth 

of  a  leaf  are  themselves  serrate. 
bi  s5x'u  al,  having  both  stamens  and  pistils. 
bi  ter'nate,  tivice  ternate. 
bi'vSlved,  ttvo-valved. 
blade,  the  expanded  part  of  the  leaf. 
blanched,  whitened  by  lack  of  light. 
bloom,  a  whitish  powder  on  fruits,  leaves,  etc. 
boat'-shaped,  concave  within  and  keeled  trith- 

oiif,  like  a  small  boat. 
b5t'a  ny,  the  science  trhich  treats  of  plants. 
brSch'eate,       tcith       opposite       spreading 

branches. 
brSct,  the  small  leaf  or  scale  from  the  axil 
of  which  a  dower  or  its  pedicel  proceeds. 
hT^c'te  Ate,  furnished  with  bracts. 
brXc'te  o  late,  furnished  with  bractlets. 
brSct'let,  brSc'teole,  a  bract  on  the  pedicel 

or  flower-stalk. 
branrh,  a  shoot  growing  from  the  stem. 
biTs'tles,  stiff,  sharp  hairs. 
brTst'ly,  beset  with  bri.ifles. 
brush'-shaped,  a.spergilliform  :   .'shaped  like 

the  hriisli  used  in  sprinkling  holy  water. 
bry  ol'o  gy.  thai  pari  of  botany  which  treats 
of  mosses. 


bry  5pli'y  ta,  moss-like  plants. 
j    bQd,   the   growing   point :    an    nndevelopfl 

plant  or  (lower. 
bOd'ding,  ll,e  process  of  forming  buds. 
bild'-. scales,  coverings  of  a  bud. 
bulb,  an  undirgrouml  bud. 
bul  blf'er  out-,  hearing  or  producing  bulbs. 
btilb'lets,  little  bulbs. 
bOriate,  appearing  as  if  blistered. 
byssa'ceous,    composed    of    Jine,   jiax-like 

threads. 


ca  du'cous,  dropping  off  early. 
caes'pitose,    turf-like;    having  many  stems 
from   one   root.stock,   or  front     many  en- 
tangled roots. 
ca  lath'i  form,  cup-shaped . 
cS,Vca.r  a,te,  furnished  with  a  spur. 
cSl'qe  0  late,  slipper-shaped. 
cSl'lous,  hardened. 

ca  \yq  i  flo'rous,  having   the  petals  and  sta- 
mens adnate  to  the  calyx. 
c5Ky  Qiue,  calyx-like. 

calye'ulate,  having  an  outer  calyx  or  calyx- 
like involucre. 
calyp'tra,  the  hood  of  the  spore-case  of  a 

7noss. 
ca  lyp'tri  form,  shaped  like  a  candle-extin- 
guisher. 
ca'lyx,  the  outer  floral  en  relope. 
cSm'bi  um,  an  old  name  for  the  sappy  cells 
between    the    wood    and    bark;    nascent 
structure. 
cam  pSn'u  late,  bell-shnped. 
cam  py  15t'ro  poi;s,  having  the  ovule  curved, 

with  the  apex  iierr  the  hilum. 
can  a  ITc'u  late,  channelled. 
cSn'gel  late,  latticed;  resembling  lattice-work. 
cSn'di  dus,  pure  white. 
cangs'^ent,  grayi.fh  white. 
cSp'il  la  ry,    or    cap  il  la'ceous,    resembling 

hair;  long  and  slender. 
cSp'itate,    head-shaped,    gr'otring    in    close 

clusters  or  heads. 
ca  pTt'u  lum,  a  little  head. 
cSp're  o  late,  bearing  tendrils. 
cSp'sule,  a  dry,  dehiscent  seed-vessel   with 

more  than  one  carpel. 
car'bon  di  SxTde,  a  substance  consisting  of 

one  atom  of  carbon  to  two  of  oxygen. 
cari^na,  a  keel. 
cSr'i  nate,  boat-shaped  ;  having  a  sharp  ridge 

beneath. 
cSr  i  op'sis,  the  one-seeded  fruit  of  grain  or 

grasses. 
car'ne  ous.  flesh-colored  ;  pale  red. 
car' pel,  a  pistil. 
car  pOl'o  gy,  that  department  of  botany  which 

relates  to  fruits. 
car'po  phore.  part  of  a  receptacle  prolonged 
between  the  carpels. 


820 


GLOSSARY. 


CRT  ti  lag'i  nous,  Jirm  and  tough  in  ferture, 

like  cartildfie. 
cSr''un  cle,  an  excrescence  near  the  hilum  of 

some  seeds. 
cSr  y  o  phyl  la'ceous,   relating   to   the   Pink 

family. 
car  y  op'sis,  a  grain  ;  a  thin,  dry,  one-seeded 

pericarp. 
cas  sTd'e  ous,  helmet-shaped. 
cas'sus,  empty  ;  sterile. 
cSt'e  nate,  or  ca  ten'u  late,  end  to  end,  as  in 

a  chain. 
cSt'kin,  an  anient. 
cau'date,  tailed,  or  tail-pointed. 
cau'dex,  the  trunk  or  stem  of  a  plant. 
cau'di  cle,  the  stalk  of  a  pollen-mass. 
cau  les'gent,  having  a  distinct  stem. 
cau'li  cle,  a  little  stoii,  or  rudimentary  stem 

of  a  seedling. 
cau'line,  relating  to  the  stem. 
cau  lo  car'pic  (stems),  same  as  perennial, 
cau'lome,  the  cauline  parts  of  a  plant. 
c611,  a  sac  or  bag-like  body  containing  pro- 
toplasm. 
cell-growth,  formation  and  enlargement  of 

cells. 
cgl'lular  tis'sue,  tissue  formed  of  cells. 
cel'lulose,  the  substance  of  which  cell-icalls 

are  formed. 
cen  trif  u  gal    in  flo  res'cence,    a    flowering 

from  the  center. 
centrTp'etal    in  flo  res'cence,    a    flowering 

outside  toward  the  center. 
Qeph'alous,  head-shaped ;  groiving  in  close 

clusters  ;  capitate. , 
qe're  al,  relating  to  grains,  corn,  etc. 
Qer'nuous,  nodding,  but  less  inclined  than 

pendulous. 
chaff,  the  husks  of  grasses  and  grains. 
chaff' y,  abounding  in  or  resembling  chafl^. 
ehala'za,  the  part  of  an  ovule  where  the 

covering  and  the  nucleus  join. 
chan'nelled,  holloived  out  like  a  gutter. 
char'ac  ter,  a  ivord  expressing  the  essential 

marks  of  a  species,  genus,  etc. 
char  ta'ceous,  having  the  texture  of  paper. 
chlo'ro  phyll,  the  green  substance  of  leaves 

and  bark. 
chloro'sis,  a  condition  in  ivhich  naturally 

colored  parts  turn  green. 
cho  ri  pet'a  lous,    having    separate    petals ; 

polypetalous. 
cho^ri  sis,  separation  of  an  organ  into  ttvo 

or  more  parts. 
chro'mule,  coloring  matter  in  plants, 
qie'a,  trix,  the  scar  left  by  the  fall  of  a  leaf  or 

other  organ. 
qiVi  ate,  fringed  tvith  marginal  hairs. 
q!  ne're  ous,  ashy-gray,  ash  color. 
51 'on,  a  young  shoot. 
cir^Qi  nate,  rolled  inward  from  the  top. 
cir  cu  la'tion,  a  moving  around  {as  of  the 

sap). 
cir  cum  acls'sile,  opening  by  a  transverse  slit. 


cir  cum  scrTp'tion,  ge7ieral  outline. 

gir'rhose,  furnished  with  a  tendril. 

git're  ous,  lemon-yellow. 

claMose,  branched  or  ramose. 

clath'rate,  latticed;  cancellale. 

cla'vate,  club-shaped. 

cla  vTc'u  late,  having  claviculce,  or  little  ten- 
drils or  hooks. 

claw,  the  narrow  or  stalk-like  base  of  some 
petals,  as  of  Pinks. 

cleft,  cut  into  lobes. 

dels  tog'a  nious,  fertilized  in  closed  buds. 

cleistog^amy,  fertilization  in  closed  buds. 

climb'ing,  rising  by  clinging  to  other  objects. 

clyp'e  ate,  buckler -shaped. 

CO  a  les'gent,  growing  together. 

CO  are'tate,  contracted,  draivn  together. 

coat'ed,  having  an  integument,  or  covered  in 
layers. 

cob'web  by,  bearing  hairs  like  cobwebs  or 
gossamer  ;  arachnoid. 

coc  Qin'e  ous,  scarlet-red. 

coccus  {pi.  cocci),  a  berry;  a  one-seeded 
carpel  of  separable  fruits. 

coeh  le  ar'i  form,  spoon-shaped. 

coch'le  ate,  spiral,  like  a  snail-shell. 

CO  he'sion,  imion  of  one  organ  with  another 
of  the  same  kind. 

co'hort,  a  division  next  above  the  Order. 

col  latter  al,  placed  side  by  side. 

col'lum,  the  part  of  the  root  where  the  stem 
meets  it. 

col'ored,  of  any  color  except  green,  which  in 
botany  is  not  a  color,  while  white  is. 

col  u  mel'la,  the  axis  to  which  the  carpels  of 
a  compound  pistil  are  often  attached,  as 
in  Geranium;  or  which  is  left  when  a 
pod  opens,  as  in  Azalea. 

col'umn,  the  combined  stamens  and  styles. 

CO  lum'nar,  shaped  like  a  column  or  pillar. 

co'ma,  a  tuft  of  hair. 

com'mis  sure,  the  joining  of  the  carpels  of 
the  creniocarp. 

com'mon,  belonging  alike  to  several. 

complete'  flow'er,  one  that  has  all  the  or- 
gans, —  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils. 

com'pli  cate,  folded  upon  itself. 

com 'pound  flow'er,  one  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  separate  flowers  crowded  on  the 
torus. 

com'pound  leaf,  one  composed  of  separate 
leaflets,  or  little  leaves. 

com  pressed'',  flattened  on  the  sides. 

con'chi  form,  shell-  or  half -shell-shaped. 

con'col  or,  all  of  one  color. 

con  du'pli  cate,  folded  on  itself  lengthwise. 

cone,  a  strobile  ;  a  multiple  fruit  having 
the  shape  of  a  cone. 

con  fer  ru'ml  nate,  stuck  together,  as  the 
cotyledons  in  a  Horse-chestnut. 

con'fluent,  uniting;  coherent. 

con  formed',  similar  to  something  associated 
or  compared;  closely  fitted,  as  the  skin  to 
the  kernel  of  a  seed. 


GLOSSARY. 


321 


con  g&6^tei\,roiitJlomerti/(' ;  croiKh-d  together. 

von  glOiu'er  ate,  croirdrd  luijether  ;  ileusely 
clustered. 

f5u'uate-per  16'li  ate,  Imrituj  the  leaves  euii- 
Hule,  or  united  round  <i  stem. 

con  tTn'u  ous,  not  jointed  or  articulated. 

cou  tort'ed,  twisted. 

con  tor  tu'iili  oate,  twisted  back  upon  itself. 

con  trSL-'ted,  either  narrowed  or  shortened. 

c5u'trary,  turned  in  an  opposite  direction  to 
/he  ordinary  way. 

cor'date,  heart-shaped. 

cor  i  a'ceous,  Icalher-like. 

cOrk'y,  oj'  the  texture  oj  cork. 

conn,  a  sort  oJ'  bulb,  or  fleshy  stem. 

cor'ne  ous,  horn-like  in  texture. 

cor  uTc'u  late,  having  a  small  horn  or  spur. 

cor'uute,  horned ;  bearing  a  horn-like  pro- 
jection or  appendage. 

CO  r51'la,  inner  perianth,  made  up  of  petals. 

cor  ol  la'ceous,  like,  or  belonging  to,  a  corolla. 

c5r'ol  line,  pertaining  to  the  corolla. 

CO  ro'na,  a  crown. 

c5r'onate,  crowned;  furnished  with  a 
crown. 

c6r'ti  cal  bark,  outer  bark. 

cSr'ti  cate,  coated  with  bark  or  bark-like 
covering. 

c5r'ymb,  a  flat-topped  or  convex  cluster  of 
flowers,  each  on  its  own  foot-stalk,  and 
arising  from  different  points  of  a  common 
axis. 

cor  ym  bif'er  ous,  bearing  corymbs. 

CO  ryni'bose,  in  corymbs;  approaching  the 
fornt  of  a  corymb,  or  branched  in  that  way. 

c5s'tate,  ribbed ;  having  rib-like  ridges. 

cot  y  le'dons,  lobes  or  seed-leaves,  or  flrst 
leaves  of  the  embryo. 

era  tSr'i  form,  of  the  form  of  a  goblet. 

creep'er,  a  pUmt  that  trails  on  the  ground. 

crSiu'ocarp,  a  dry  fruit  of  two  one-sided 
carpels,  ivhich  separate  tvhen  ripe. 

cre'nate,  bordered  with  rounded  teeth. 

cr6n'u  late,  finely  scalloped. 

crgst'ed  or  crTs'tate,  having  an  elevated 
ridge. 

ere  ta'ceous,  chalky,  or  chalk-like. 

crlb'ri  form,  pierced  like  a  .neve  with  small 
apertures. 

cri'nite,  bearing  long  hairs. 

cro'ceous,  .saffron-colored  ;  of  a  deep  reddish- 
brown. 

crSss'-breeds,  the  progeny  of  interbred  va- 
rieties. 

crSas-fer  ti  li  za'tion,  the  fertilization  of  a 
plant  by  pollen  from  a  difl'erent  individual. 

cru'ci  form,  in  the  form  of  a  Roman  cross. 
cnjde  sap,  sap  before  it  has  been  exfto.ved  to 

the  sun  in  the  leaf. 
crus  ta'ceous,  hard,  thin,  and  brittle. 
cryp  to  pa'mi  a,  name  of  the  division  <>f  plants 

without  flowers. 
cu'cnl  late,  rolled  tip  into  a  hood  shape. 
cGlm,  the  straw  of  grasses. 

Th,  i  l.  —  22 


cQl'trate,  shaped  like  a  trowel  or  broad  knife. 

cu'ne  ate,  or  cii  ne'i  form,  wedge-shape<t. 

cQp'-bhaped,  in  the  form  of  a  drinkingcup. 

cu'pu  late,  provided  with  a  cupule. 

cu'pule,  a  little  cup,  as  the  cup  of  the  acorn. 

cu  pu  lifer  ous,  cupule-bearing. 

cQr  vi-se'ri  al,  in  oblifjue  or  .spiral  ranks. 

cfir'vi-veined,  with  curved  ribs  or  veins. 

cush'iou,  the  enlargement  at  the  insertion  or 
base  of  a  petiole. 

cus'pi  date,  having  a  sharp,  stifl' point. 

cut,  having  sharp  or  deep  divisions;  inci.sed. 

cu'ti  cle,  outer  lamina  of  wall  of  epidermi.i. 

gy  Sn'ic,  blue,  or  of  any  color  except  yellow. 

qy  Sth'i  form,  cup-shaped. 

Qyc'lic  al,  rolled  up  circularly,  or  coiled  into 
a  complete  circle. 

gyclo'sis,  the  circulation  of  protoplasmic 
granules  within  a  living  vegetable  cell. 

cy  lln  dra'ceous,  approaching  to  the  cylin- 
drical form  ;  not  tapering  ;  coluniiiar. 

(jym'bi  form,  boat-shaped. 

gyme,  flower-cluster  with  the  oldest  flowers 
at  the  lop  or  center. 

gy'mose,  gy^mous,  having  the  nature  of  a 
cyme ;  bearing  cymes. 

(•y'mule,  a  partial  diminutive  cyme. 

qy  to  bias  te'ma,  the  viscous  fluid  in  irhich 
vegetable  cells  are  produced  and  held 
together. 

Qy'tode,  a  nucleated  mass  of  protoplasm. 

^y'to  plasm,  a  vessel  or  chamber  ivhich  sur- 
rounds or  contains  the  protoplasm. 


D. 


de  cSg'y  nous,  having  ten  pistils  or  styles. 

de  cam'er  ous,  having  ten  parts. 

de  cSu'drous,  having  ten  stamens. 

de  Qid'u  ous,  falling  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

dec'linate,  bent  doivnward. 

de  com  pound',  much  compounded  or  di- 
vided. 

decum'bent,  reclining  with  the  top  ascend- 
ing. 

decur'rent,  running  down  into,  or  upon. 

de  cus'sate  (leaves),  opposite  and  having 
the  pairs  at  right  angles. 

de  du  pli  caption,  separation  of  an  organ  into 
many  parts. 

de  flSxed',  bent  downward. 

de  flo'rate,  pa.st  the  flowering  .'date,  a.s  an 
anther  after  it  has  discharged  its  pollen. 

de  fo  li  a'tion,  the  casting  ofl'  of  leaves. 

de  hTs'c^ence,  mode  of  the  opening  of  seed- 
ve.s.sel  or  anther. 

de  liTs'»'ent,  opening  by  regular  dehi.scence. 

del  i  qugs\>ent,  branching,  .so  that  the  stem 
is  lost  in  branches. 

d61'toi«l,  like  the  (ireek  letter  A  in  form. 

de  niersed',  growing  beloiv  the  surface  of 
water. 

dSn'droid,  tree-like  inform. 


322 


GLOSSARY. 


dSn'tate,  toothed. 

den  tic'u  late,  toothed  ivith  fine  or  small 
teeth. 

de  nu'ded,  become  naked. 

de  pau'per  ate,  less  developed  than  usual. 

de  pend'ent,  hanging  down. 

de  pressed' ^  flattened  from  above;  low. 

de  scend'ing,  tending  gradually  downwards. 

de  scend''ing  ax'is,  the  root. 

dSx'trin,  a  gummy  substance  produced  by 
the  action  of  diastase  upon  starch. 

dex'trorse,  twining;  turning  to  the  right. 

di  a  del'phous,  having  stamens  grouped  into 
two  sets  by  united  filaments. 

di  ag  no'sis,  a  brief  statement  of  the  distinc- 
tive character  of  a  plant  or  group. 

di al y pet'a lous,  having  separate  petals; 
polypetalous. 

di  5n''drous,  with  two  stamens. 

di  Sph'a  nous,  transparent,  or  translucent. 

di'astase,  a  peculiar  ferment  in  malt,  alter- 
ing starch  into  dextrine. 

di  car'pel  la  ry,  having  tivo  carpels. 

di  ehla  myd'e  ous,  having  both  calyx  and 
corolla. 

di  chog'a  mous,  having  stamens  which  ripen 
before  the  pistils,  or  vice  versa. 

di  ehot'o  mous,  forked,  or  two-forked. 

dic'li  nous,  having  flowers  of  separate  sexes. 

dicoc'eous,  splitting  into  two  cocci  or  closed 
carpels. 

di  cot  y  led'on  ous,  having  tivo  cotyledons  or 
seed-lobes. 

di  cot  y  le'dous,  plants  ivhich  have  two  seed- 
leaves  in  their  embryos. 

did'y  mous,  double. 

didyn'amous,  having  the  stamens  of  afour- 
androus  flower  in  two.  pairs,  one  pair 
shorter  than  the  other. 

diffuse',  much  divided  and  spreading. 

dig'i  tate,  having  several  distinct  leaflets 
palmately  arranged,  as  in  the  leaf  of  the 
Horse-chestnut. 

dig'y  nous,  having  two  pistils  or  styles. 

dlm'er  ous,  made  up  of  two  parts,  or  having 
organs  in  tivo. 

di  mTd'i  ate  {anther),  halved. 

di  m8r'phous,  having  two  forms. 

dice'cious,  having  staminate  and  pistillate 
floivers  borne  on  different  plants, 

di  pet'al  ous,  having  tivo  petals. 

diph'yl  lous,  two-leaved. 

dip'ter  ous,  having  two  tvings. 

dis'gi  form,  or  disc-shaped,  flat  and  circu- 
lar, like  a  disk  or  quoit. 

dis'eoid,  having  no  rays. 

discol'or,  of  two  different  colors  or  hues. 

dis  Crete',  separate  ;  opposite  of  concrete. 

di  sSp'al  ous,  having  two  sepals. 

disk,  face  of  an  organ,  or  a  circular  spot 
on  cells. 

dlsk-flow'ers,  flowers  of  the  disk  in  Com- 
positce. 

dia  sSct'ed,  ctit  into  deep  lobes. 


dis  sep'i  ment,  a  partition,  a  separating 
tissue. 

dis  sil'i  ent,  bursting  into  pieces. 

dis'tich  ous,  arranged  in  tivo  rows. 

dis  tiuct',  separate  ;  not  united. 

dithe'cous,  having  two  thecce,  or  anther- 
cells. 

di  var'i  cate,  ividespread  ;  straggling. 

di  ver'gent,  spreading  with  a  smaller  angle. 

divid'ed  {leaves),  cut  into  divisions,  down 
to  the  base  or  midrib. 

do  de  cag'y  nous,  having  twelve  pistils. 

do  de  can'drous,  having  twelve  stamens. 

do  lab'ri  form,  ax-shaped. 

d8r'sal,  on,  or  relating  to,  the  back. 

dot'ted  cells,  cells  ivith  small  spots. 

dot'ted  ducts,  ducts  with  spots  or  dots. 

doii'ble  flow'er,  a  flower  in  which  the  sta- 
mens become  petals. 

dowai'y,  clothed  with  short,  weak  hairs. 

dru  pa'ceous,  like  a  drupe. 

drupe,  a  stone  fruit,  as  the  Peach  and 
Cherry. 

dry'ing-press,  an  apparatus  for  drying  bo- 
tanical specimens. 

diicts,  elongated  cells  through  which  the 
fluids  of  a  plant  pass. 

dumose',  bushy;  like  a  bush. 

du'plicate,  in  pairs;  double. 

du  ra'men,  heart-wood. 

dwari'ing,  preventing  a  plant  from  growing 
to  its  full  size. 


E. 


eared,  auriculate  ;  having  ears. 

e  brSe'te  ate,  ivithout  bracts. 

eeh'i  nate,  prickly  ;  with  rigid  hairs. 

e  den'tate,  toothless. 

ef  fete',  sterile,  exhausted. 

ef  fuse',  very  loosely  branched  and  spread- 
ing. 

e  glan'du  lose,  destitute  of  glands. 

el'a  ters,  spiral,  elastic  threads  accompany- 
ing certain  spores. 

el  lip  soi'dal,  shaped  like  an  ellipsoid. 

el  ITp'tic,  el  ITp'tic  al,  having  the  form  of  an 
ellipse. 

elon'gated,  lengthened  ;  extended. 

e  mar'gi  nate,  having  a  notch  at  the  apex  or 
top. 

Sm'bry  o,  the  young  plant  in  the  seed. 

gm'bry  o  sSc,  the  cell  in  the  ovule  in  ivhich 
the  embryo  is  formed. 

em'bryonal,  belonging,  or  relating  to,  the 
ovary. 

e  mersed',  raised  out  of  water. 

en  de  cSg'y  nous,  having  eleven  pistils  or 
styles. 

en  dSm'ic,  peculiar  to  a  country  geogi'aphi- 
cally. 

6n'do  carp,  the  inner  layer  of  a  seed-vessel. 

Sn'do  chrome,  the  coloring  matter  of  plants. 


GLOSSARY. 


328 


eud6g'euou»  struc'ture,  structure  m  ichivh 

the  pith  and  woody  fiber  are  indiscnmi- 

nately  mingkd. 
Sn'dogeus,  plunls   ivho.se    structure    is  eii- 

dogenuns. 
eii  do  phloe'um,  the  inner  layer  of  bark. 
eu  do  pleii'ra,  the  inner  coating  of  a  seed. 
eudo  rhrzal,  ratticle,  or   root,  sheathed   tu 

germination. 
Sn'dos  mose,  a  thrusting,  causing  liquids  of 

different  densities  to  pass  through  thin 

membranes  and  mingle. 
Sn'do  sperm,  the  (dbumen  of  a  seed. 
Sn'do  stoine,  the  orifice  in  l/te  inner  coat  of 

an  ovule. 
eu  ue  5g'y  nous,  having  nine  pi.itils  or  styles. 
eu  ne  Su'drous,  having  nine  .stamens. 
6n'si  form,  sword-shaped. 
entire',    mar'giued,    huving    a    continuous 

edge. 
en  to  m5ph'i  lous  (flowers),  frequented  and 

fertUized  by  insects. 
e  phem'er  al,  enduring  for  one  day. 
ep  i  ca'lyx,   an    involucel    like    that   of   the 

Malvacece. 
gp'i  carp,  the  outer  layer  of  a  seed-vessel. 
ep  i  der'mis,  outer  layer  of  cells. 
ep  i  ge'ous,  growing  on  the  earth,  or  close  to 

the  ground. 
e  pig'y  nous,   adnate  upon  the  top   of  the 

ovary. 
ep  T  pSt'a  lous,  growing  upon  the  petals. 
e  pTpli'yl  lous,  borne  on  a  leaf. 
Sp'i  phytes,  plants  on  other  plants. 
e  pTp'te  rous,  winged  at  the  top. 
6p'i  sperm,  the  skiii  of  the  seed. 
e'qual,  alike  in  number  or  length: 
Sq'ui  taut,  astraddle. 
e  ros'trate,  not  beaked. 
e  ryth  ro  car'pous,  red-fruited. 
es  sSn'tial  or'gaus  (of  a  flower),  stamens  and 

pistils. 
e'tiolated,  colorless  for  want  of  light. 
ex  al  bu'mi  uous,  without  albumen. 
ex  cur'rent,  running  through  oi  beyond. 
ex  Tg'u  ous,  puny  ;  small. 
Sx'o  carp,  outer  layer  of  a  pericarp. 
ex  5g'e  ne,    gx'o  gens,    plants     which     in- 
crease  by  the   addition  of  new   material 

outside  of  last  year's  growth. 
ex  5g'e  uous    struc'ture,   structure    like   an 

eiogen. 
exorhl'zal,    radicle    in    germination,    not 

sheathed. 
Sx'os  nioae,  flowing  out. 
6x'o  stome,  the  orifice  in  the  outer  coat  of  the 

ovule. 
6x'pla  nate,  spread  or  flattened  out. 
8x  serf,  projecting  out  of  or  beyond. 
ex  stTp'u  late,  without  .ttipules. 
Sx'tine,  outer  coat  of  a  pollen  grain. 
Sx'tra-Sx'il  la  ry,  growing  from   without  the 

arils. 
ex  trdrse',  turned  outward. 


F. 


fSl'cate,  scythe-shaped ;  curved. 

fSm'i  ly,  in  botany,  same  us  Order. 

fa  ri'na,  meal  or  starchy  matter. 

far  i  im'cAioua,  flour-like  in  texture. 

fSr'i  nose,  mealy  on  the  surface. 

fSs'ci  ate,  banded;  also  applied  to  mon- 
strous .items  whieh  grow  flat. 

f5s'(;i  cle,  '/  bundle. 

fSs'^icled,  fas Qic'u  late,  fas(,ic'u  la'ted,  in 
the  form  of  a  fascicle;  growing  in  a  bun- 
dle or  tuft.,  as  the  leaves  of  Larch  and 
roots  of  Peony. 

fas  tig'i  ate,  close,  parallel,  and  upright ;  as 
the  branches  of  Lombard y 'Poplar. 

faux  {pi.  fau'ces),   the  throat  of  a  calyx, 

.    corolla,  etc. 

fa  ve'o  late,  honeycombed ;  alveolate. 

fSatli'er-veined,  ivith  all  veins  from  the 
sides  of  the  midrib  or  niidvein. 

fe'male  flow'er  or  plaut,  one  having  pistil 
only. 

fe  nSs'trate,  pierced  with  one  or  more  large 
holes,  like  tvindows. 

fer  rii'gi  uous,  of  the  color  of  iron-rust. 

fer'tile  flow'er,  seed-producing  flower. 

fer  ti  li  za'tion,  act  of  making  fertile. 

fibril'la  {pi.  ^hv\\\d?),  fibril,  minute  thread. 

fi  bro-vSs'cu  lar,  containing  woody  fibers  and 
ducts. 

fid 'die-shaped,  obovate,  with  a  deep  recess 
on  each  side. 

fTl'a  ment,  the  stalk  of  a  stamen. 

fil'i  form,  slender  ;  like  a  thread. 

fim'hri  Ate,  fringed ;  having  the  edge  bor- 
dered with  slender  proces.<ies. 

fis'sion,  a  splitting  into  parts. 

fis  sTp'a  rous,  multiplying  by  division  of  one 
body  into  two. 

fis'tu  lar,  hollow,  as  the  leaf  of  an  Onion. 

fla  bSl'li  form,  fan-shaped. 

fla  gSl'li  form,  whip-shaped  ;  long,  tapering, 
and  supple. 

fla  vSs'Qent,  yellowish  ;  turning  yellow. 

flSsh'y,  composed  affirm  pulp,  or  fle.th. 

flgx'u  ous,  zigzag,  or  wary. 

fl5c'cose,  having  tufts  of  soft  hairs. 

flo'ra,  the  spontaneous  vegetation  of  a  coun- 
try ;  a  written  description  of  the  .<!ame. 

flo'ral,  relating  to  flowers. 

flo'ral  Sn'vcl  ope,  the  perianth  of  a  flower. 

flo'ret,  one  of  the  small  flowers  composing  n 
compound  flower. 

flo  rTf 'er  ous,  producing  flowers. 

fl5s'cule,  a  floret. 

flow'er,  the  organ  which  produces  the 
seed. 

flow'er  bud,  an  undeveloped  blossom  ;  the 
dormant,  or  .ileepiug,  flower. 

fo  li  i'ceous,  leaf -like  in  texture  or  form. 

fo'li  ate,  provided  uith  leaves. 

fo  li  a'tion,  the  net  of  leafing. 

f5'li  u  late,  relating  to  or  bearing  leaflets. 


324 


GLOSSARY. 


fo'liole,  a  leaflet ;  a  distinct  part  of  a  com- 
pound leaf. 
fo'li  ose,  bearing  many  leaves. 
fo'li  um  {pi.  folia  or  foliums),  «  leaf. 
f51'licle,  a  one-celled,  many-seeded  carpel, 

opening  by  the  ventral  suture. 
fol  lic'u  lar,  like,  pertaining  to,  or  consisting 

of  follicles. 
f  oot'stalk,  a  pedicel,  petiole,  or  peduncle. 
fo  ra'men,  a  small  opening  or  orifice. 
fo  ram  in  if 'er  ous,  having  small  openings. 
fo  ram'i  nous,  full  of  holes. 
fOrked,  branched  into  two  or  three  or  more. 
f6r'm  cate,  having  an  arch  or  scale  over  the 

throat  of  the  corolla. 
fOr'uix,  a  small  arched  scale  in  the  throat  of 

a  corolla,  as  in  Comfrey. 
fo've  0  late,  having  shalloiv  pits. 
free,  not  adherent  or  adnate. 
fringed,  edged  with  soft  hairs. 
frond,  an  organ  which  is  both  stalk  and  leaf. 
fron'deut,  covered  with  leaves. 
fron  des'cence,  the  act  of  bursting  into  leaf. 
fron'dose,  frond-bearing,  leafy. 
fruc  ti  fi  ca'tion,  the  act  of  producing  fruit. 
fruit,  a  ripened  pistil ;  a  seed-vessel  with  its 

contents. 
fru  tes'gent,  shrubby  in  character. 
fu  ga'cious,  lasting  but  a  short  time. 
ful'cra,  accessory  organs,  such  as  tendrils, 

stipules,  etc. 
fu  ITg'i  nous,  of  a  sooty  color  ;  smoky-brown  ; 

blackish. 
ful'vous,  dull  yellow  ;  tawny. 
fu'nicle,  funic'ulus,  the  stalk  of  an  ovule 

or  seed. 
fQr'cate,  forked  ;  forked-veined. 
fur  fu  ra'ceous,  scurfy. 
ffir'rowed,  marked  lengthwise  with  channels. 
fQs'cous,  grayish  or  blackish  brown. 
fu'si  form,  spindle-shaped. 


^'bu  lus,  the  ivoody  cone  of  the  Juniper  and 

Cypress. 
ga'le  a,  the  name  applied  to  the  upper  lip  of 

labiate  corollas. 
ga'le  ate,  shaped  like  a  helmet. 
gSm  o  pet'a  lae,    plants    ivhose    petals    are 

united. 
gSm  o  pet'al  ous,  having  the  petals  united  ; 

sympetalous. 
ga  moph'yl  lous,    having    united    perianth 

leaves. 
gam  o  sgp'al  ous,  7vith  the  sepals  united. 
gem'i  nate,  having  tivo  together. 
gem  ma'tion,  formation  of  new  individuals 

by  budding. 
gSm'mule,  a  small  bud  ;  the  plumule. 
gen'e  ra,  see  genus, 
ge  nSr'ic,  pertaining  to  a  genus. 
ge  ntc'u  late,  bent  at  an  angle. 


ge'nus  {pi.  genera),  a  group  of  species  alike 

in  their  fructifying  organs. 
germ,  the  ovary. 

ger'meu,  the  old  name  for  the  ovary. 
ger  mi  na'tion,  the  development  of  the  seed 

into  a  plant ;  sproutiiig. 
gib'bous,  having  a  rounded  protuberance  at 

the  side  or  base. 
gla'brate,  becoming  glabrous,  or  almost  gla- 
brous, with  age. 
gla'brous,  s7nooth  ;  not  hairy. 
glad'i  ate,  sword-shaped. 
gland,  an  organ  of  a  leaf  or  branch  which 

secretes  a  fluid,  as  oil,  resin,  etc. 
glan'du  lar,  consisting  of  glands. 
glans,  the  acorn  or  mast  of  the  Oak  and 

similar  fruits. 
glar'e  ose,  growing  in  gravel. 
glau  Qcs'cent,   slightly  glaucous,  or    bluish 

gray. 
glau'eous,   with  a  bloom  or  whitish  waxy 

powder,  as  on  fresh  plums. 
globose',  nearly  spherical  inform. 
glo  ehid'i  ate,  tipped  ivith  barbs,  or  ivith  a 

double-hooked  point. 
glom'er  ate,  collected  into  close  heads. 
glom'er  ule,  a  cyme  grown  in  the  form  of  a 

head. 
glu  ma'ceous,  glume-like  ;  glume-bearing. 
glu  melles',  the  inner  husks  of  grasses. 
glumes,  bracteal  coverings  offloivers  or  of  the 

seeds  of  grains  and  grasses. 
gon'o  phore,  a  stipe  beloiu  stamens. 
gos'sy  pine,  cottony  ;  floccident. 
graft'ing,   the  act  of  inserting  a  shoot  or 

scion  from  one  tree  iJito  the  stem  or  some 

other  part  of  another,  so  (hat  they  unite 

and  produce  fruit  of  the  kind  from  which 

the  shoot  was  taken. 
grain,  tlte  gathered  seeds  of  cereal  plants; 

a  grain-like  prominence  or  tubercle,  as  on 

the  sepals  of  Bock. 
gra  min'e  ous,  grass-like. 
gran 'u  lar,  composed  of  grains. 
gris'e  ous,  gray  ;  bluish  gray. 
gru'mous,  or  gru  mose',  formed  of  coarse, 

clustered  grains. 
gut'tate,  spotted  as  if  by  sjiots  of  something 

colored. 
gym  no  car'pous,  having  a  naked  fruit, 
gym  no  sper'mae,  a  class  of  exogenous  plants 

characterized  by  naked  seeds. 
gjrm  no  sperm  ous,  having  naked  seeds. 
gy  nan'drous,  bearing  stameiis  on  the  pistils. 
gyn'obase,  a  process  of   the  torus,  on   or 

around  which  the  carpels  are  suspended. 
gy  noe'Qi  um,  the  collective  pistils  of  afloiver. 
gyn'o  phore,  a  produced  torus  bearing  the 

ovary  on  its  summit. 
gyn  o  ste'gi  um,  a  sheath  around  pistils. 
gyn  0  ste'mi  um,  the  column  in  Orchids  con- 
sisting of  s/i/lf  and  stigma   with  stamens 

combined. 
gy'rate,  curved  inward;  vircinate. 


GLOSSARY. 


325 


H. 


hSb'it,  (he  general  aspect  of  n  plant. 

\AWi  tat,  the  natural  locdlilii  or  growth  of 
a  wild  plant. 

hSirs,  outgrowths  of  epiiicrinnl  cpUs. 

hSir'y,  con  red  with  hair  ;  made  of  or  re- 
sembling hair  ;   hirsute. 

hal'bprd-shaped,  lia.state. 

halved,  one  half  apparently  deficient. 

lia'mate,  or  lia  luose',  having  the  end  hooked 
or  curved. 

liSm'u  lose,  having  a  small  hook. 

liap  lo  stgm'o  nous,  having  only  one  series  of 
stamens. 

hSs'tate,  triangular.,  with  the  base-lobes  ab- 
ruptly spreading,  as  in  a  halberd. 

hgnd,  vapitulum  ;  a  form  of  i7i florescence. 

heart'-fihapcd,  a  form  ivhich  n-ould  be  pre- 
sented by  the  .section  of  a  sheep\<;  heart,  if 
cut  in  halves. 

heart'-wood,  the  wood  near  the  central  part 
of  (171  erogenous  tree  or  shrub. 

hgl'i  coid,  coiled  like  a  helix  or  the  shell  of  a 
snail. 

hSl'met,  the  hood-formed  upper  sejiol  or 
petal  of  so7nefiowers,  as  of  the  Mo7ikshood. 

hgl'vo  lous,  grayish-yellow. 

hgni'i  carp,  half-fruit ;  one  carpel  of  an 
umbelliferous  ]>lant. 

hep  tag'y  nous,  having  .leven  pistils  or  styles. 

hep  tamper  ous,  having  the  parts  in  sevens. 

hep  tan'drous,  having  seven  stamens. 

herb,  a  plant  whose  stei7i  is  7iot  persistently 
woody,  and  does  not  re/nain  per/nanent, 
hut  dies  at  least  down  to  the  ground  after 
floicering. 

her  ba'ceous.  greeji  and  cellular  m  texture. 

her  ba'ri  uin,  a  collection  of  dried  phmts,  for 
the  use  of  stude7its  of  botany. 

hermSph'ro dl te  {flower),  having  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils. 

hes  perid'i  uni,  a  berry  with  a  thick  rind, 
as  the  ora7ige,  etc. 

het  er  o  car''pous,  bearing  fruit  of  two  ki7ids 
or  shapes. 

het  er  0  <.'5ph'a  lous,  having  heads  of  two 
.sorts  on  the  same  plant. 

Iiet  er  5g'a  mous,  having  tiro  sorts  of  flowers 
on  the  same  head. 

heterSg'ony,  having  stamens  or  pistils  of 
tuo  sorts. 

het  er  o  uior'phous,  of  tivo  or  7nore  shapes. 

het  er  5ph'yl  lous,  having  two  .wrts  of  leaves 
on  the  .same  ste7n. 

het  er  Sfro  pous,  having  the  etnbryo  ob- 
lii/ue  or  transverse  to  the  funiculus; 
a/iiphitropous. 

hex  Sg'o  nal,  six-sided. 

hex  Xm'er  oiis,  in  .sir  parts. 

hex  Si/drous,  having  six  stajnens. 

hi  ber  nSc'u  luiii,  n  winter  bud. 

hl'e  nial,  occurring  in  u-inter. 

hi  Hal,  belongi7ig  to  the  hilum. 


hl'lMin,  the  eye.  or  scar  of  the  seed. 

liip  ))o  crfp'i  form,  hor.se-shoe  shaped. 

hirhUte',  hairy,  with  rather  long  hairs. 

hirt^l'lou. ,  minutely  hirsute. 

hia'pid,  bristly;  having  stiff  hairs. 

his  tOl'o  gy,  tlie  science  of  cells  and  tissues. 

hoar'y,  frost-colored  ;  grayish-white. 

ho  Uiod'ro  U10U8,  runni/ig  in  one  direction. 

ho  niog'a  mous,  having  all  t lie  flowers  alike. 

ho  mo  ge'iie  ous,  of  the  same  kind  or  nature. 

ho  mol'o  gous,  of  the  same  type. 

ho  mSt'ro  pous,  having  the  radicle  of  the  seed 

directed  toicard  llic  hilain. 
hood,  the  heli/iet-shaped  upper  petal  of  some 

flowers. 
hooked,  hook-shaped  ;  ha77iate. 
hor  teii^sial,yi7/or  a  garden. 
hor'tus  sic'cus,  an  herbariu/u  ;  a  collection 

of  dried  plant  specimens. 
hu'mi  fuse,  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 

ground  ;  procumbe7it. 
liy'a  ITiie,  t/'ansparent,  or  nearly  so. 
liy'brid,  a  cross-breed  betueen  two  species. 
hy'dro  phyte.s,  water-plants. 
liy  me'ui  um,  the  spore-bearing  surface  of 

.some  fungi. 
hy  pSn'thi  um,  a  hollow  flower-receptacle,  as 

of  a  rose. 
hy  per  bo're  an,  inhabiting  northern  regio?is. 
hyp  o  era  t6r'i  form,  .salver-shaped. 
hypo  ge'an,  growing  under  ground. 
hy  pog'ynous,  inserted  below  the  pistil. 
hys  ter  Sn'thous,  having  the  blossoms  develop 

earlier  than  the  leaves. 


i  CO  sSu'drous,  having  twenty  sta7nens  in- 
serted in  the  calyx. 

Im'bri  cate,  imbricated,  overlapped  so  as  to 
break  joi7its,  like  sJi ingles  on  a  roof. 

im  mar'gin  ate,  having  no  rim  or  boider. 

im  mersed',  grouing  uhnlly  under  water. 

Tm'par  i  pTn'nate,  pinnate  with  a  single  leaf- 
let of  the  apex. 

im  per'fect  How'er.  '/  floirer  ivanting  either 
stamens  or  pi.slils. 

inane',  empty;  said  of  an  anther  which 
pi'oduces  no  pollen. 

in  a])  pen  dlc'u  late,  not  appendaged. 

in  ca  nSs'cjent,  r)/-  in  ca'iious,  Ao^rv  /  having 
a  soft  ivhite  pubescence. 

in  car'nate.  flesh-colored. 

in  clsed'.  divided  deeply,  as  if  cut. 

includ'cd,  inclosed  or  confined  within  :  as 
short  stamens  in  a  coi'olla. 

in  com  plete'  flow'er.  wanting  calyx  or  corolla. 

in  crSs'sate,  thickened. 

In'cu  bous,  having  the  tip  of  one  leaf  lying 
flat  over  the  base  of  the  next  above. 

in  cHmljent,  having  the  radicle  lying  against 
the  back  of  one  of  the  cotyledons. 

incfirvcil'.  ar  rd-rrl'i/  curviua  inuard. 


326 


GLOSSARY. 


in  dSf'i  nite,  too  numerous  or  variable  for 

specific  enumeration. 
in  dSf  i  nite  in  flo  res'genQe,  or  in  de  ter'mi- 
nate  in^orescence,  a  process  of  inflores- 
cence in  which  the  flowers  all  arise  from 
axillary  buds,  the  terminal  bud  con- 
tinuing to  grou-,  and  extending  the  stem 
indeflnitely. 
in  de  hTs'(;ent,  not  opening. 

in  de  ter'mi  nate,  see  indefinite. 

in  dig'e  nous,  native  to  a  country. 

in  du  men'tum,  any  hairy  covering  or  pubes- 
cence which  forms  a  coating. 

in  du'pli  cate,  having  the  edges  bent  abruptly 
toward  the  axis. 

in  du''si  um,  the  shield  of  the  fruit  dots  (sori) 
in  many  ferns. 

indu'viate,  clothed  with  old  and  withered 
parts. 

in  e  qui  lat'er  al,  unequal-sided,  as  the  leaf  of 
a  Begonia. 

in  er'mis,  devoid  of  prickles  or  thorns. 

in  fer'tile,  not  producing  seed  or  pollen,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

in  flatbed,  turgid  and  bladdery. 

infleet'ed,  bent  inward;  inflexed. 

in  flo  res^Qenge,  mode  of  flowering,  or  the 
arrangement  of  flowers  on  a  plant. 

in  fra-ax'il  la  ry,  situated  beneath  the  axil. 

in  fun  dib'u  li  form,  funnel-shaped. 

Tn^nate,  growing  on  the  top  of  the  part  that 
sustains  it. 

in  no  va^tion,  a  young  shoot  or  new  growth. 

in  sert'ed,  .situated  upon,  growing  out  of,  or 
attached  to  some  part. 

in  ser'tion,  the  attachment  of  one  part  to 
another. 

Tn^te  gral,  entire,  not  lobed. 

in  teg'  u  ment,  a  coat  or  covering. 

in  ter'ca  la  ry,  inserted  or  introduced  among 
others. 

inter qeV\u\nT  {passages,  spaces),  lying  be- 
tween the  cells  or  cellules. 

in  ter  fo  li  a'ceou.s,  situated  between  opposite 
or  whorled  leaves. 

in^'ternode,  the  space  between  tivo  nodes. 

in  ter  pet'i  o  lar,  between  the  petioles. 

in  ter  rupt'ed  ly  pTn''nate,  pinnate  without  a 
terminal  leaflet. 

Tn'tTne,  innermost  coating  of  a  pollen  grain. 

in  tra  fo  li  a'ceous  {stipules,  etc.),  groiving  be- 
tween the  leaf  or  petiole  and  the  stem. 

in  trQr^e' {anthers),  turned  imvard,  or  toward 
the  axis. 

in  truse',  projpcted  or  pushed  inward. 

in  tus  sus  ^ep'tion,  the  interposition  of  neiv 
vital  or  formative  material  among  the 
particles  already  in  existence,  as  in  the 
growth  of  a  cell  trail  by  the  introduction 
of  new  matter  throughout  the  structure, 
and  not  by  adding  to  the  surface. 

in  verse',  or  in  vert'ed,  having  the  apex  in 
the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  organ 
it  is  compared  with. 


in  vSl'u  Qel,  a  partial  or  small  involucre. 

in  vo  lu'cel  late,  furnished  with  an  involucel. 

in  vo  lu'crate,  furnished  with  an  involucre. 

Tn'vo  lu  ere,  a  cluster  of  bracts  around  the 
base  of  a  flower. 

Tn'vo  lute,  rolled  inward. 

ir  reg'u  lar  flowers,  flowers  whose  like  parts 
difl'er  either  in  size  or  shape. 

i  som'er  ous,  composed  each  of  an  equal  num- 
ber of  parts,  as  the  members  of  the  several 
circles  of  a  floiver . 

i  so  stem'o  nous,  having  the  stamens  equal  in 
number  to  the  sepals  or  petals. 


joint'ed,  having  johits  or  separable  pieces. 
ju'gum,  one  of  the  ridges  commonly  found  on 

the  fruit  of  umbelliferous  plants;  a  pair 

of  opposite  leaflets. 
ju'li  form,  or  ju  lu'gent,  having  the  form  of 

a  catkin  or  julus. 


K. 


keel,  the  two  lowest  petals  of  the  corolla  of  a 
papilionaceous  flower  united  and  inclosing 
the  stamens  and  pistil ;  a  carina. 

keeled,  having  a  longitudinal  prominence 
on  the  back;  carinate. 

ker'nel,  the  ivhole  body  of  the  seed  within  the 
coats. 

key-fruit,  a  dry,  indehiscent,  usually  one- 
seeded,  winged  fruit ;  a  samara. 

kid'ney-shaped,  having  the  shape  of  a  kid- 
ney;  reniform. 


la  bel'lum,  the  lower  petal  of  an  orchidaceous 

floiver. 
la'bi  ate,  lip-shaped. 
la'bi  a'ti  flo'rous,  having  flowers  with  labiate 

corollas. 
lag'er  ate,  torn  irregularly  by  deep  incisions  ; 

jagged. 
la  Qin'i  ate,  slashed  into  deep,  narrotv,  irreg- 
ular lobes. 
lac  tes'cent,  containing  a  thick  milk-like  fluid 

or  juice. 
lac  tTf 'er  ous  tTs'sue,  a  tissue  who.se  cells  and 

ducts  bear  milk-like  fluid. 
lac'u  nose,   having    lacunce  or    holes;  fur- 

roivrd  ;  pitted. 
la  cii^'trine,  groiving  in  lakes. 
IcCv'i  gate,  smooth,  as  if  polished. 
la  ge'ni  form,  bottle-shaped. 
lago'pous,  densely  covered  with  long,  soft 

hairs. 
lam'el  lar,  or  lam'el  late,  consisting  of  flat 

plates  or  lamellrp. 
la'nate.  wooly :  clothed  with  long,  soft,  erif 

tangled  hairs. 


GLOSSARY 


327 


lSn'<;e  o  late,  Innce-shnped. 

la  nu'gi  nose,  covered  with  down,  or  fine  soft 
hair. 

'appa'cjeous,  covered  with  forked  points. 

la'teiit,  concealed  or  umkveloped. 

lat'cr  al,  belonging  to  the  side. 

15t  er  I'tious,  brick-colored. 

la'tex,  the  turbid  or  milky  juice  of  plants. 

lat  i  fo'li  ous,  broad-leaved. 

leaf,  a  colored  expansion,  growing  from  the 
stems  or  branches  of  a  plant. 

leaf  bud,  a  bud  that  develops  into  a  leaf  or 
leafy  branch. 

leaflet,  one  part  of  a  compound  leaf. 

leaf  scar,  a  cicatrix  on  a  stem  from  which  a 
leaf  has  fallen. 

ISath'er  y,  having  the  consistency  of  leather  ; 
coriaceous. 

Igg'ume,  a  seed  vessel  which  opens  by  both  a 
ventral  and  dorsal  opening,  as  the  bean, 
pea,  etc. 

le  gu'mi  nous,  belonging  to  the  legumes. 

I§n'ti  gel,  a  small,  oval,  rounded  spot  upon 
a  stem  or  branch,  from  which  the  under- 
lying tissues  may  protrude,  or  roots  may 
issue,  either  in  the  air  or  when  the  stem 
or  branch  is  covered  with  loater. 

len  tic'u  lar,  resembling  a  lentil  in  size  and 
form. 

leu  tig'i  nose,  bearing  numerous  dots  resem- 
bling freckles. 

Igp'rous,  covered  with  scurfy  scales. 

II 'bar,  the  inner  bark  lying  next  to  the 
wood. 

li'chen,  a  jiowerless  plant  growing  upon 
rocks,  trees,  and  various  bodies. 

ITd,  the  cover  of  the  spore  case  of  mosses  ; 
■the  top  of  an  ovary  ichich  opens  trans- 
versely ;   an  operculu  m . 

ITg'ue  ous  sys'tem,  tvoody  system. 

ITg'u  late,  strap-shaped. 

ITg'ule,  a  stipule  of  grasses. 

lil  i  a'ceous,  like  a  lily. 

ITmb,  border  of  a  petal  or  sepal. 

JTni'bate,  bordered,  as  ichen  one  color  is 
edged  ivith  another. 

line,  the  twelfth  of  an  inch. 

iTn'e  ar,  long  and  narroiv. 

iTn'e  ate,  marked  longitudinally  with  de- 
pressed par(dlel  lines. 

lYn'gui  form,  tigulate. 

ITn'gu  late,  tongue-shaped. 

ITp,  one  of  the  lobes  of  a  labiate  corolla. 

ITt'to  ral,  belonging  to  the  shore. 

ITv'id,  clouded  with  bluish  broirn  or  gray. 

lo'bate,  lohed. 

lo  cSl'late,  divided  into  secondary  compart- 
ments or  cells. 

iSc'u  lar,  relating  to  the  cell  or  coinparlment 
of  an  ovary. 

loculicl'dal,  dehi.^cent  through  the  middle 
of  the  hack  of  each  cell. 

loctis'ta,  the  spikelet  of  a  flower  clu.<iter  of 
grasses. 


I    ISd'i  cule,   one   of  the   scales   nnt^nering   in 

grass  flowers  to  the  perianth. 
lo'ment,  a  jointed  legume. 
lo  men  tS'ceous,  like  a  loment ;  having  fruits 

like  laments. 
lo'rate,  strap-shaped  ;  ligulate. 
lu'nate,  crescent-.'shaped . 
lu'pulin,  a  fine,  yelloic,  resinous  powder, 

found  upon  strobiles  or  fruit  of  hops. 
lu'teous,  yellowish;  more  or  less  buff. 
lutSs'ceut,  of  a  yellowish  color. 
ly'rate,  lyre-shaped,  or  spatulate  and  ohlnng, 

with  small  lobes  toward  the  base. 


M. 

mSc'ro  spore,  a  large  .<>pore  of  certain  flower- 
less  plarits. 

mSc'u  late,  marked  xvith  spots  or  blotches. 

male,  staminate. 

mam  mose',  breast-shaped. 

marcSs'cent,  icithering,  but  persistent. 

mar'gin  al,  pertaining  to  the  margin  or 
border. 

mar'gin  ate,  having  a  margin  distinct  in  ap- 
pearance or  structure. 

mSr'i  time,  belonging  to  seacoasts. 

mar'mo  rate,  variegated  like  marble. 

meal'y,  farinaceous. 

me'dial,  or  me'di  an,  running  through  the 
middle;  belonging  to  the  middle. 

medul'la,  pj7A;  soft  cellular  tissue  occupy- 
ing the  center  of  a  stem  or  branch. 

mgd'ul  la  ry  rays,  rays  of  cellular  tissue  seen 
in  a  transverse  section  of  exogenous  wood, 
tchich  pass  from  the  pith  to  the  bark. 

mgd'ullary  sheath,  the  tube  formed  by  the 
spiral  vessels  around  the  central  column 
of  pith. 

mei  o  stSm'o  nous,  having  fewer  stamens 
than  the  parts  of  the  corolla. 

mem  bra  na'ceous,  membra'uous,  thin,  and 
rather  .toft  or  pliable,  as  the  leaves  of  the 
Ro.te.  Peach-tree,  and  Aspen  Poplar. 

me  nls'coid,  crescent-shaped. 

mSr'i  carp,  one  carpel  of  a  cremocarp  of  an 
umbellifer. 

mer  is  mSt'ic,  dividing  into  cells  or  segments 
by  the  formation  of  internal  partitions. 

mSs'ocarp,  the  middle  layer  of  a  pericarp, 
consisting  of  three  distinct  layers. 

mes  o  phlce'um,  the  middle  or  green  bark. 

me  tSb'o  lism,  transformation  of  one  kind  of 
sub.ttance  into  another  in  assimilation. 

mi'cropyle,  an  opening  in  the  outer  coat  of 
a  seed  through  which  the  fecundating  pol- 
len ertfers  the  ovule. 

mi'cro  sjiiire.  an  exceed inglu  minute  spore 
found  in  rfrtain  fltnrerless  plants. 

niTd'rih,  or  niTd'vpin.  the  central  vein  of  a 
leaf 

mTlk'-vSs'nels.  certain  cells  in  the  inn^r  hark 
of  plants  rnnlaining  milky  juice. 


328 


GLOSSARY. 


min'iate,  vermilion. 

mit'ri  form,  having  the  form  of  a  miter  or 

peaked  cap. 
mon  a  del'phous,  having  the  stamens  united 

in  one  body  by  the  Jilaments. 
mo  nan'drous,  having  hut  one  stamen. 
mo  nil'i  form,  jointed  or  constricted  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  to  resemble  a  string  of  beads. 
mon  o  car'pic,  fruiting  but  once. 
mon  o  chla  myd'e  ous,  having  a  single  floral 

envelope,  either  calyx  or  corolla. 
mon  o  cot  y  le'dou,  a  plant  having  only  one 

cotyledon  or  seed  lobe. 
mo  noe'cious,  having  stamens  and  pistils  on 

the  same  plant. 
mo  nog'y  nous,   having    only    one    style    or 

stigma. 
mon  o  pet'al  ous,  having  but  one  petal. 
mo  noph'yl  lous,  having  but  one  leaf. 
mon  o  sep'al  ous,   having  the  calyx   in    one 

piece. 
mon  o  sper'mous,  having  but  one  seed. 
mon'strous  flow'ers,  floivers  ichose  stamens 

have  developed  into  petals. 
morphol'ogy,  that  branch  of  biology  which 

deals  with  the  structure  of  animals  and 

plants,  and  treats  of  the  forms  of  orgayis, 

describing  their  varieties,  homologies,  and 

metamorphoses. 
mos'ehate,  exhaling  the  odor  of  musk. 
mu'cro,  a  minute,  sharp,  abrupt  point,  as  of 

a  leaf. 
mu'cro  nate,   ending  abruptly   in  a    sharp 

point. 
mu  cron'u  late,  tipped  with  a  small  point  or 

points. 
miirti  fid,  cut  into  many  segments. 
mu'ri  cate,  full  of  sharp  points  or  prickles. 
mu'ri  form,  resembling  a  wall  of  mason  work. 
mus  col'o  gy,  bryology  ;  that  part  of  botany 

which  relates  to  mosses. 
mu'ticous,  without  a  point ;  blunt. 
my  ce'li  um,  the  white  threads  or  filamentous 

growth  from  ivhich  a  mushroom  or  fungus 

is  developed. 


N. 


na'ked  seeds,  seeds  not  in  a.  seed  vessel. 
na'pi  form,  turnip-shaped. 
na'tant,  floating  in  water  ;  submersed. 
nat'u  ral  ized,    growing    spontaneously,   but 

not  native. 
na  vTc'u  lar,  boat-shaped ,  as  the  glumes  of 

many  grasses. 
neck'lace-shaped,  looking  like   a  string  of 

beads. 
nSc'tar,  honey. 
nee  tar  if 'er  ous,  .'secreting  honey  ;   having  a 

nectary. 
nec'tar  y,  a  vessel  containing  honey. 
ngm'o  ral,  or  nem'o  rous,  pertaining    to    a 

wood  or  grove  ;  woody  ;  inhabiting  groves. 
nerves,  reins. 


ner  vose, '  conspicuously  nerved. 
net 'ted,  or  net-veined',  having  the  veins  in- 
terlaced so  as  to  present  the  ajrpearance 

of  a  net. 
ueu'tral  flow'er,  a  flower  without  stamens  or 

pistils. 
nit'id,  bright;  lustrous;  shining. 
ni  'val,  living  in  or  near  snoiv. 
niv'e  ous,  snoivy  ;  .snow-white. 
n5d'ding,  nutant ;   having  the  summit  bent 

over,  (IS  in  the  Snoicdrop. 
node,  (I  Joint  of  a  stem. 

nodose',  knotty;  having  numerous  or  con- 
spicuous nodes. 
uod'u  lose,   having  small    nodes    or   knots; 

dim inutively  nodose. 
no'men  cla  ture,  the  technical  names  used  in 

any  particular  branch  of  science  or  art. 
nSr'mal,  regular  ;  according  to  rule. 
no'tate,  marked  with  spots  or  lines,  which 

are  often  colored. 
nu  ca  men  ta'ceous,  resembling  a  small  nut; 

bearing  one-seeded,  nut-like  fruits, 
mi  c&ilws,  nucleus  ;  kernel. 
nu'ci  form,  shaped  like  a  nut. 
nu  cle'o  lus,  a  dense  rounded  body  within  a 

nucleus. 
nu'cle  us,  a  kernel;   an  incipient  ovule  of 

soft,  cellular  tissue. 
nut,  the  fruit  of  certain  trees  and  shrubs, 

consi.'sting  of  a  hard  and  indehiscent  shell 

inclosing  the  kernel. 
nu'tant,    nodding;     having    the    top     bent 

doicnivard. 
nut'let,  a  small  nut ;  the  stone  of  a  drupe. 


o. 


ob  com  ^ve?,s,&(\' ,  flattened  back  and  front. 
obcSr'date,  heart-shaped,  with  the  attach- 
ment at  the  pointed  end. 
oblan'ceolate,  lanceolate,  narrowing  toward 

the  point  of  attachment. 
oblique',  having  unequal  sides,  as  the  leaves 

of  an  Elm . 
ob'long,  longer  than  broad,  the  sides  being 

nearly  parallel. 
ob'o  vate,  egg-shaped,  having  the  broad  part 

at  the  apex. 
ob  tuse',  blunt  at  the  apex. 
ob'verse,  having  the  base,  or  end  next  the 

attachment,  narrower  than  the  top. 
ob'vo  lute,  overlapping. 
o  eel 'late,  marked  ivith  eye-like  spots  of  color. 
o'chrea,  a  kind  of  sheath  formed  by  two 

stipules  uniting  around  a  stem. 
och  ro  leu'cous,  yellowish-ivhile. 
oc  tSn'drous,  having  eight  distinct  stamens. 
oc  tog'y  nous,  having  eight  pistils. 
oc'u  la  ted,  having  spots  or  holes  resembling 

eyes. 
of  fic'i  nal,   used    in   medicine,  —  therefore 

kept  in  the  shops. 


GLOSSARY. 


329 


5flf'set,  n  short,  prostrnte  shoot,  uhirh  takct 

root  and  produces  a  iuj't  of  leavei). 
ol  er  a'«eou8,  esculent,  as  a  pot  herb. 
ol  i  gSn'drous,  having  few  stamens. 
ol  J  va'ceous,    olive-green;    resembling    the 

olive. 
o'o  phore,  an  alternately  produced  form  of 
certain  cryptogamous  plants,  which  bear 
opposite  fructifying  organs. 
o'o  pho  rtd'i  uui,   the  spore-case    containing 

the  larger  female  spores. 
opaque',  dull,  not  shining. 
o  per'cu  lar,  having  a  lid. 
6p'po  site,  set  over  against  each  other,  but 
separated  by  the   whole  diameter   of  the 
stem  ;  placed  directly  in  front  of  another 
part  or  organ. 
6p  pos'i  ti  fo'li  ous,  placed  opposite  a  leaf. 
or  bic'u  lar,  or  or  bTc'u  late,  having  a  circu- 
lar or  nearly  circular  outline. 
or  chi  da'ceous,  like  an  Orchid  inform. 
8r'der,  a  group  below  Class. 
6r'gau,  any  member  of  a  plant,  as  a  leaf,  a 

stamen,  etc. 
or  ga  iiog'ra  phy,  a  description  of  the  organs 

of  (I  plant. 
or'thos'ti  clious,  straight-ranked. 
or  thot'ro  pons,  having  the  axis  of  an  ovule 
or  seed  straight  from  the  hilum  or  chalaza 
to  the  orifice. 
Ss'se  ous,  bony ;  hard,  as  the  peach-stone. 
out'growth,  growth  from   the  surface  of  a 

leaf,  petal,  etc. 
o'val,  shaped  like  the  longitudinal  section  of 

an  egg. 
o'va  ry,  that  part  of  the  pistil  containing  the 

ova. 
o'vate,  oval. 

o'void,  resembling  an  egg  in  .'shape. 
o'vule,  the  yoitng  seed. 


P. 


pSl'ate,  a  projection  of  the  lower  lip  of  n 
labiate  corolla  into  the  throat,  as  in  Snap- 
dragon, etc. 

pa'le  a,  chajf,  or  chaff-like  bract. 

pa  le  a'ceous,  chaffy ;  having  palea. 

pa  le'o  la,  a  diminutive  palea. 

pa  le'o  late,  having  paleoltr,  or  narrow  palerp. 

I'STet,  same  as  jtalea. 

pSl'inate,  lobed  so  that  the  sinu.tr s  point  to 
the  a  per. 

pal  mSt'i  fid,  palmate,  with  the  divisions  .lep- 
arated  but  little  more  than  half  way  to  the 
common  renter. 

pal  mSt'i  lobed,  palmate,  with  the  divisions 
.separated  not  half  way  to  the  common 
center. 

pal  mSt'i  sect,  divided  down  to  the  midrib. 

pSl'mi  veined,  having  veins  or  nervr.i  erf  end- 
ing toward  the  aprr. 

pSl'u  dose,  living  in  n)arshe.<s. 

pan  dil'ri  form,  fidd/e-'!hai>/;d. 


pSn'i  clc,  a  branching  raceme. 

pSn'i  cled,  or  pan  Tc'u  late,  having  panicles. 

pSn'nose,    covered    with    a   felt    of   wooly 

hair. 
pa'pery,  of  about   the  lonsistence  of  letter 

paper. 
pa  pll'io  na'ceous,  resembling  the  butterfly. 
papiria(;>/.  papTl'lie),  little  nipple-shaped 

protuberancrs. 
pSp'il  late,  or  pap'il  lose,  covered  with  pap- 

ill(v ;  rrsembling  papilhe. 
pSp'pus,  the  scales,  awns,  or  bristles  which 

represent  the  calyx  in  Compositae. 
pap  y  ra'ceous,  of  t/ie  consistence  of  paper  ; 

papery. 
pSr'al  lel-veined,  having  the  veins  or  nerves 
extending  from  the  base  of  the  leaf  to  the 
apex,  parallel  to  the  midvein. 
parSph'ysis,     a     minute-jointed    filament 
among    the    archegonia    and    anther idia 
of  mosses. 
pSr'asite,   a  plant   obtaining    nourishment 
immediately  from  another  plant,  to  which 
it  attaches  itself. 
pargy'chy  ma,  soft  cellular  substance  of  a 
tissue,  like  the  pulp  of  leaves,  having  no 
wood  fibve. 
pa  reu'chy  mal,  consisting  of  parenchyma. 
par  eu  chym'a  tons,  pertaining  to  the  paren- 
chyma of  a  tissue  or  organ. 
parl'etal,  attached  to  the  main  icall  of  the 

ovary. 
pSr  i  pTn'nate,   having  an   equal  number  of 

leafirts  on  each  side,  with  no  odd  leafiei. 
part'ed,  deeply  divided  into  parts. 
par'the  nogSn'e  sis,  the  proiluction  of  seed 

without  fertilization. 
par'tial   Tn'vo  In  ere,  a  .secondary  or  .wiall 

invoh/rre ;   involurel. 
par'tial  pedun'cle.  a  branch  of  a  peduncle. 
par'tial  pSt'i  ole,  a  division  of  a  main  leaf- 
stalk, or  the  stalk  of  a  leafiet. 
par'tial  ilm'bel,  an  umbellet. 
par  tT'tion,  a  wall  in  a  capsule,  anther,  etc. 
patSlliform,  disk-,shaped,  like  the  patella, 

or  knee-pan. 
pSt'ent,  aide  open  ;  spreading. 
pSt'u  Ions,  half  open  ;  expanded. 
peSr'-shaped.  obovoid,  and  larger  above. 
pSc'ti  nate,  having  teeth  like  a  comb ;  finely 

pinnatifid. 
pSd'ate,  shaped  like  a  bird's  foot. 
p6d'i<;e].  a  stalk  which  supports  one  finwer 
or  fruit,  uhrthrr  .solitary  or  one  of  mnnii 
nltimatr  divisions  of  a  common  peduncle. 
p8d'i  rSled,  ped  i  cJl'late,  having  a  pedicel; 

.snppovled  on  a  pedicel. 
pe  dfln'cle,  a  flower -stalk  supporting  a  single 

fiower  or  fiouer-cluster. 
pe  lo'ri  a,  an  abnormal  return  to  regnlnrify 
and  symmetry  in  an   irregular  fiower. 
romutouest  in  Sunpdragon. 
pe  lo'ric,  abnormally  regular  or  symmetrical. 
pSl'tate,  shield-shaped. 


330 


GLOSSARY. 


pSud'eiit,  or  pSn'dulous,  supported  from 
above;  suspended;  hanging;  drooping. 

pen  i  cSriate,  jurnished  with  a  pencil  of  fine 
hairs ;  ending  in  a  tuft  of  hairs. 

pen'uate,  pinnate ;  having  several  leaflets 
arranged  on  each  side  of  a  common  petiole. 

pen'ni  nerved,  feather -veined. 

pen  tSm'er  ous,  five-par  ted  ;  having  the  parts 
in  fives. 

pen  tan'drous,  having  five  stamens. 

perSn'ni  al,  living  several  years. 

per'fect  flow'er,  a  flower  having  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils. 

per  fo'li  ate,  having  the  basal  part  produced 
around  the  stem. 

per'fo  rate,  pierced  ivith  holes  or  transparent 
dots  resembling  holes,  as  an  Orange  leaf. 

pgr'ianth,  calyx  or  corolla,  or  both;  the 
leafy  parts  of  a  flower  surrounding  the 
stamens  and  pistils. 

pSr'i  carp,  the  ripened  ovary ;  the  covering 
of  the  seed. 

per  i  car'pic,  belonging  to  the  pericarp. 

pgr'i  gone,  or  per  i  go'ui  um,  an  organ  inclos- 
ing the  essential  organs  of  a  flower ;  a 
perianth. 

per  i  gyn'i  um,  the  bristles,  scales,  or  more 
or  less  inflated  sack  which  surroimds  the 
pistil,  as  in  Carex. 

pe  rig'y  nous,  surrounding  the  pistil ;  hav- 
ing a  tubular  ring  or  sheath  surrounding 
the  pistil,  on  which  the  various  parts  of 
the  flower  are  inserted. 

per  i  pher'ic,  around  the  outside  or  periphery 
of  any  organ. 

pSr'i  sperm,  the  albumen  of  a  seed,  especicdly 
that  part  for nied  outside  the  embryo  sac. 

pgr'i  stome,  the  fringe  of  teeth  to  the  spore 
case  of  mosses. 

persTst'ent,  remaining  long  in  place. 

per'son  ate,  masked  by  a  closing  of  the  throat 
of  the  corolla,  as  in  the  Snapdragon. 

per  tuse',  punched  ;  pierced  with  holes  ;  slit. 

pgr'u  la,  a  scale  of  a  leaf  bud. 

pSr'u  \9,te,  furnished  with  scales. 

pgt'al,  one  of  the  leafy  expansions  of  the 
corolla. 

petSl'ody,  metamorphosis  of  .stamens  or 
pistils  info  petals,  as  in  double  floicers. 

pSt'al  oid,  pertaining  to  a  petal ;  resembling 
a  petal. 

pet'i  0  late,  having  a  stalk  or  petiole. 

pet'i  ole,  a  leaf-stalk ;  foot-stalk  of  a  leaf 
connecting  the  leaf  with  the  stem. 

pet  i  31'u  late,  supported  by  its  own  petiohile. 

pet'i  o  lule,  a  small  petiole,  or  the  petiole  of 
a  leaflet. 

plise  no  ga''mi  a,  or  phan  e  ro  ga'mi  a,  name  of 
that  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
rvhich  bears  visible  floivers. 

pha'lanx  ( pi.  pha  ISn'ges),  a  group  or  bun- 
dle of  stamens.  i 

phy  col'o  gy,  the  science  of  Algce,  or  sea- 
weeds. \ 


phyl  lo  cla'di  um,  a  flattened  stem  or  branch 
which  more  or  less  resembles  a  leaf,  and 
performs  the  functions  of  a  leaf. 

phyl  lo'di  um,  a  petiole  dilated  into  the  form 
of  a  blade. 

phyl'lome,  a  foliar  part  of  a  plant ;  an  or- 
gan homologous  with  a.  leaf,  or  produced 
by  the  metamorphosis  of  a  leaf. 

phyl'lotaxy,  the  order  or  arrangement  of 
leaves  on  a  stem. 

phys  i  0  log'i  cal  bot'an  y,  that  division  of  the 
science  of  botany  which  treats  of  the  func- 
tions of  plants. 

phy  tog 'ra  phy,  the  .science  of  describing 
plants  in  a  systematic  manner. 

phy  tol'o  gy,  an  account  of  the  composition 
of  plant  organs  and  the  substances  that 
compose  them. 

pi  'le  us,  the  expanded  upper  portion  of  many 
of  the  fungi. 

pi  lifer  ous,  bearing  a  slender  bristle  or 
hair ;  beset  icith  hairs. 

pi  lose',  covered  with  long  slender  hairs. 

pTu'na,  a  primary  division,  ivith  its  leaflets, 
of  a  bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaf. 

pTn'nate,  composed  of  several  leaflets,  or 
separate  portions,  arranged  on  each  side 
of  a  CO  mm  071  petiole. 

pTn'nate  ly  lobed,  lobed  in  a  pinnate  manner. 

pin  nat'i  fid,  divided  in  a  pinnate  manner, 
the  divisions  not  reaching  to  the  midrib. 

pin  nat'i  sect,  p  innately  divided  to  the  midrib. 

pin'nule,  one  of  the  small  divisi07is  of  a  de- 
compound frond  or  leaf. 

pi 'si  form,  resembling  a  pea  in  size  or  shape. 

pis'til,  organ  of  a  flower,  made  up  of  ovary, 
style,  and  stigma,  or  ovary  and  stigma. 

pis'til  late,  having  a  pistil  or  pistils,  — usu- 
ally said  of  flowers  having  a  pistil  but  no 
stamens. 

pis  til  lid 'i  um,  archegonium  ;  the  organ  in 
mosses  ivhich  is  analogous  to  a  j)istil  in 
floicering  plants. 

pitch'er,  a  tubidar  or  cup-like  appendage 
or  expansion  of  the  leaves  of  certain 
plants. 

pith,  the  soft  tissue  in  the  center  of  the  stems 
of  dicotyledonous  plants. 

pTt'ted,  having  depressions  or  excavations. 

pit'ted  cells,  cells  tvith  spots  or  depressions 
on  their  ivalls. 

plaQen'ta.  the  part  of  a  pistil  or  fruit  to 
ivhich  the  ovules  or  seeds  are  attached. 

pla  Qen'ti  form,  having  the  shape  of  a  circu- 
lar thickened  disk,  somewhat  thinner  about 
the  middle. 

plait'ed,  folded  ;  doubled  over. 

plSnt,  an  organized  body  possessing  vitality 
but  not  sensation. 

plant  growth,  the  manner  in  ivhich  a  plant 
is  built  up. 

plat  y  phyl'lous,  broad-leaved. 

plei  oph'yl  lous,  having  several  leaves. 

pli'cate,  plaited  like  a  fan  ;  folded. 


GLOSSARY. 


331 


plfim'be  OU8,  resembling  lend  in  color. 
plu  raose',  feathery. 

plii'mule,  the  first  bud  or  gemule  of  a  young 
plant;  the  bud,  or  growing  point,  of  the 
embryo  above  the  cotyledons. 
plu  ri  fo'li  o  late,   having   several    or    many 

leaflets. 
p5d,  a  capsule,  especially  a  legume. 
pod  ocSph'alous,  having  a  head  of  Jloivers 
on  a  long  pcJuncle. 

pSd'o  sperm,  the  stalk  of  a  seed  or  ovule. 

point'less,  destitute  of  any  pointed  tip,  such 
as  a  mucro,  awn,  acumination,  etc. 

pSl'len,  the  fructifying  cells  contained  in 
the  anthers. 

p51'len  mSss,  the  united  mass  of  pollen,  as 
in  the  Milk-weed  and  Orchij;. 

p51'len  tiibe,  the  slender  tube  sent  doiv: 
throu'jh  the  style  of  the  pistil,  through 
u-hich  the  protoplasm  of  the  pollen  cell 
is  conveyed  to  the  ovum. 

pol  li  ua'tiou,  the  act  of  furnishing  pollen  to 
the  stigma. 

pol  ITn'i  um  {pi.  pol  ITii'i  a),  a  mass  of  pollen. 
See  pollen  mass. 

pol  y  a  del'phous,  having  the  stamens  in  sev- 
eral groups. 

pol  y  Sn'drous,  having  tn any  stamens,  —  tnore 
than  twelve. 

polycar'pic,  term  used  by  T>e  Candolle  in 
the  sense  of  perennial. 

pol  y  cot  y  le'don  ous,  haviiig  many  {more 
than  two)  cotyledons,  as  Pi7ies, 

polyg'amous,  having  both  hermaphrodite 
and  unisexual  flotvers. 

po  lyg'y  nous,  ivith  many  pistils  or  styles. 

po  lym'er  ous,  having  many  parts  or  mem- 
bers in  each  set. 

pol  y  mor'phous,  of  several  or  varying  forms. 

pol  y  pgt'al  .ne,  a  group  of  dicotyledonous 
plants  having  separate  petals  forming  a 
circle  inside  the  calyr. 

pol  y  pSt'al  ous,  having  several  or  many  sep- 
arate petals. 

pol  y  sSp'al  ous,  having  the  sepals  separate 
from  each  other. 

pol  y  sper'mous,  many-seeded. 

pome,  a  fruit  lik^  an  apple. 

po  mTf  er  ous,  pome-bearing. 

p5r'rect,  outstretched. 

pos  te'ri  or,  next  the  axis. 

pouch,  the  silicle  or  .short  pod,  as  of  Shep- 
herd\'i-p  ur.se. 

pre  co'ciou:^,  flowering  before  the  leaves. 

pre  fo'li  a'tion,  vernation. 

pre  m8rse',  ending  abruptly. 

prTck'les,  slender  thorn-like  proce.swes. 

prtck'ly,  bearing  prickles  or  sharp  projec- 
tions. 

pri'mTne,  the  outermost  of  the  two  integu- 
ments of  an  ovule. 

pri  mor'di  al,  earliest  formed.  Primordial 
leaves  are  the  first  after  the  cotyledons. 

pris  mSt'ic.  prisnt-shaped. 


prSc'ess,  any  projection  from  the  surf  arc  or 

edge  of  a  body. 
pro  cQm 'bent,  trailing  ;  prostrate. 
procQr'rent,  running  through,  but  not  pro- 
jecting. 
pro  duued',  extended  more  than  u.iual 
pro  irferous,  bearing  offspring,  ~  applied 

to  a  fiOw:r  ivll'il.i  which  another  is  pro- 
duced,  or  to  a  branch   or  frond  from 

which  another  ari.ses. 
propS^'.i  1"in,    a    runner    lerminateil    by   a 

germinating  bud. 
prosCn'chyma,  pUml    (issue    made    up    of 

lengthened  cells. 
prSs'trate,  lying  flat  on  the  ground. 
pro  tau'drou"?,   pro  ter  Sn'drous,   having  the 

staincis  come  to  maturity  before  the  pistil. 
pro  tcr  ?:.i'thous,  having   flowers  which   ap- 

pca,'  before  the  leaves. 
pro  tcr  og'y  nous,  pro  t5g'y  nous, //w/wh^  the 

pistils  come  '?  maturity  before  the  .<ttamens. 
pro  t'lSrii  r  '.,  pro  tliSl'liis,  the  minute  pri- 
mary growth  from  the  spore  of  ferns, 

which  bears  the  true  sexual  organs. 
pro  t5ph'y  ta,  07ie  of  the  primary  divisions 

of  vegetable  life,  containing  the  smallest 

and  simplest  plants. 
pro'to  plasm,  the  primary  organic  substance 

of  plants. 
pru'inose,  covered  u-ith  dtist  or  bloom,  .to  as 

to  give  the  appearance  of  frost. 
pter  i  d5i)li'y  ta,  a  class  of  flowerle.'^s  plants.^ 

embracing  ferns,  horse-tails,  club  mosses, 

etc. 
pu  b6r'u  lent,  very  minutely  downy. 
pu  bes'cent,  covered  with  fine  short  hairs. 
pul  ver  a'ceous,  or  piil  vSr'u  lent,   having  a 

finely  powde, :  /  surface. 
pul'vi  nate,  having  the  form  of  a  cushion. 
punc'tate,  dotted  with  small  .tpots  of  color, 

or  with  minute  depressions  or  pits. 
punc  tlc'u  late,  minutely  punctate. 
pQn'gcnt,  prickly-pointed  ;  hard  and  sharp. 
pu  nT'ceous,  of  a  bri^^hl  red  color. 
purpu'real,  of  a  purple  color,   or   bluish 

red. 
py  rSm'i  dal,    in    the   form    of   a    cone    or 

pyramid, 
py  re'na,  or  py'rene,  a  nutlet  resembling  a 

seed ;  the  kernel  of  a  drupe. 
pyr'iform,  in  the  form  of  a  pear. 
Y>yX'ida,te,  furnished  with  a  lid. 
pyx'is,  a  box  which  divides  circular  hi  into 

an   upper   and   lower    half   the   former 

being  a  k-ind  of  lid. 


<iuad  rilu'gu  Inr,  four-angled. 

quad  ri  fo'li  ate,  four-leaved. 

quad  rlj'u  gato.  u-ifl,  four  pairs  of  leafieit. 

qimd  ri  IXt'er  al,  ha  ring  four  sides. 

qui 'nate.  grmring  in  sets  of  five. 


332 


GLOSSARY. 


quin  cun'^ial,  having  the  leaves  of  a  pentam- 
erous  calyr  or  corolla  so  imbricated  that 
two  are  exterior,  two  interior,  and  the  fifth 
has  one  edge  exterior  and  one  interior. 

quin'tu  pie,  five-fold. 


R. 


race,  a  variety  of  stich  fixed  character  that 

it  may  be  propagated  by  seed. 
raceme',  a  flower  cluster  with  an  elongated 

axis  and  many  one-flowered  lateral  ped- 
icels. 
rSg'e  mose,  groiving  in  the  form  of  a  raceme. 
ra'ehis,  or  rha'chls,  the  principal  axis  in  a 

spike,  raceme,  panicle,  or  corymb. 
ra'dial,    consisting    of,    or    like,    radii    or 

rays. 
ra'di  ant,  having  a  ray-like  appearance. 
ra'di  ate,  diverging  from  a  common  center. 
rad'i  o.al,  belonging  to  or  proceeding  from  the 

root. 
rad'i  cant,  taking  root  on  or  above  the  ground; 

rooting  from  the  stem. 
rad'i  cle,  the  rudimentary  stem  of  a  plant 

which  supports  the  cotyledons  in  the  seed, 

and  from  ivhich   the    root    is    developed 

downward  ;  a  rootlet. 
ra'mal,  pertaining,  to  a  branch. 
ram  en  ta'ceous,   beset  with   thin    brownish 

scales  (ramenta),  as  the  scales  of  many 

ferns. 
ram'i  fi  ca'tion,  process  of  branching. 
raiii'u  lose,  having  many  small  brunches. 
ra'phe,   the  continuation  of  the  seed  stalk 

along  the  side  of  an    anatropous    ovule 

or  seed,  forming  a  ridge  or  seam. 
rays,  radiating  branches  of  an  umbel. 
re  gep'ta  cle,  the  apex  of  the  flower  stalk, 

from,  which  the  organs  of  the  flower  groiv, 

or  into  ivhich  they  are  inserted. 
rec^ti  nerved,   having    the  nerves  or    veins 

straight. 
re  cQrved',  curved  in  an  oppo.iite  direction  ; 

bent  back. 
re  du'pli  cate,    ra/m/e,    icith    the    margins 

curved  ontirardly,  —  said  of  the  cestiva- 

tion  of  certain  flowers. 
re  flexed',  bent  backward  excessively. 
re  fract'ed,  bent  backicard  angularly,  as  if 

half-broken. 
reg'ma,  a  dry  fruit  consisting  of  three  or 

more  cells,  each  of  ivhich  at  length  breaks 

open  at  the  inner  angle. 
reg'u  lar,  having  all  the  parts  of  the  same 

kind  alike  in  size  and  shape. 
ren'i  form,  kidney-shaped. 
repand',     having    a     slightly     undulating 

margin. 
re'pent,  prostrate  and  rooting. 
re'plum,  the  framework  of  some  pods  {as  of 

the  Prickly  Poppy  and  Cress),  persistent 

after  the  valves  fall  aicay. 


rep'tant,  repent;  creeping. 

res  pi  ra'tion,  breathing ;  the  absorption  by 
plants  of  oxygen,  the  oxidation  of  assimi- 
lated products,  and  the  release  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  watery  vapor. 

resu'pinate,  inverted;  appearing  to  be  up- 
side down  or  reversed. 

re  tic'u  late,  netted. 

ret'i  nerved,  having  reticulate  veins. 

re'tro  flexed,  bent  or  turned  abruptly  back- 
ward. 

re  tr6rse',  bent  backward  or  downward. 

re  tuse',  having  the  end  rounded  and  slightly 
indented. 

rev'o  lute,  rolled  backward  or  downward. 

rha'chis,  see  rachis. 

rha'phe,  the  continuation  of  the  seed  stalk 
along  the  side  of  an  anatropous  ovule  or 
seed,  forming  a  ridge  or  seam. 

rhaph'i  des,  minute,  transparent,  often 
needle-shaped  crystals,  found  in  the  tis- 
sues of  plants. 

rhi  zan'thous,  producing  flowers  from  a 
rootstock,  or  apparently  from  a  root. 

rhizo'ma,  or  rhizome',  a  rootstock;  a  stem 
which  has  the  appearance  of  a  root. 

rhom'bic,  .shaped  like  a  rhomb. 

rhomboid'a],  shaped  like  a  rhomboid. 

ribs,  the  chief  reins  of  a  leaf;  ridges. 

ri  mose',  full  of  fissures  or  chinks. 

rtn'gent,  gaping,  like  an  open  mouth. 

rings  of  wood,  circular  rings  which  appear 
in  a  cross  section  of  an  exogenous  stem. 

ri  pa'ri  ous,  growing  along  river  banks. 

root,  the  desceiiding  axis  of  a  plant ;  the  part 
of  a  plant  that  groivs  doivnward  into  the 
ground. 

root'  cap,  a  mass  of  dead  cells  which  cover 
and  protect  the  growing  cells  at  the  end, 
of  a  root. 

root'lets,  .<iingle  roofs  or  roof  liranches. 

rdot'stoek,  a  perennial  underground  stem, 
producing  leafy  stems  or  fiower-sfpms 
from  year  to  year. 

rosa'ceous,  like  a  ro.se  in  shaj)P  or 
appearance. 

ros'tellate,  having  a  ro.^teUum,  or  small 
beak;  terminating  in  a  beak. 

rostel'lum,  a  small  beak-like  extension  of 
some  part. 

ros'trate,  beaked;  having  a  process  resem- 
bling the  beak  of  a  bird. 

ro'su  late,  arranged  in  little  rose-like  clus- 
ters, —  said  of  leaves  and  bracts. 

ro'tate,  having  the  parts  spreading  out  tike 
a  wheel ;  ivheel-shaped. 

ro  ta'tion,  circulation  of  fluids  in  the  cell. 

ro'tund,  round  or  roundish  in  outline. 

rii'bicund,  red;  ruddy. 

ru'di  ment,  an  imperfect  organ  or  part ;  a 
minute  part. 

ru  fes'cent,  reddish  ;  tinged  with  red. 

rugose',  irrinkled;  having  the  veinlets sunken 
and  the  spaces  between  them  elevated. 


GLOSSARY. 


333 


ry'iui  ua  ted,  having  a  hard  albumen  pene- 
trated by  irregular  channels  filled  with 
softer  matter. 

rflii'i;i  nate,  pinnately  cut^  with  the  lobes 
doping  dounwards. 

rQu'uer,  a  slender  prostrate  branch,  rooting 
at  the  end. 


s. 


sSb'u  lose,  growing  in  sandy  places. 

sSc,  any  closed  membrane,  or  a  deep  purse- 
.shaped  cavity. 

sSc'cate,  .sac-shaped. 

sSg'it  tate,  arrou-shaped. 

sal  su'gi  nous,  growing  in  brackish  places,  or 
.salt  7narshes. 

sSl'ver-shaped,  tubular,  with  a  spreading 
border. 

sa  lua'ra,  a  winged  fruit  or  seed  vessel. 

sSra'aroid,  resembling  a  samara,  or  winged 
seed  vessel. 

s5p,  the  watery  fluid  taken  up  by  the  root, 
and  moved  through  the  vessel  up  to  the 
leaves. 

sSp'wood,  the  last  growth  of  tvood  in  an 
exogen. 

sar'cocarp,  the  fleshy  part  of  a  drupaceous 
fruit. 

sar'ment,  a  prostrate,  filiform  stem  or  run- 
ner, like  the  Strawberry. 

sar  men  ta'ceous,  bearing  sarments  or  run- 
ners, either  .spreading  or  procumbent. 

sar  men  tose',  long  and  filiform,  and  almost 
naked,  or  having  leaves  only  at  the  joints 
where  there  are  roots;  bearing  sarments ; 
sarmenlaceous. 

saw'-toothed,  serrate. 

sca'brous,  rough  ;  scaly. 

sea  ISr'i  form  (cells),  resembling  a  ladder; 
having  transver.se  bars  or  markings,  like 
the  rounds  of  a  ladder. 

scale,  a  thin,  scarious  body. 

scal'loped,  having  the  edge  or  border  cut  or 
marked  with  segments  of  circles. 

acai'y,  furnished  with  srale.s,  or  .scale-like  ijt 
texture. 

scSn'deut,  climbing. 

scape,  a  flower  .stalk  .springing  from  the 
ground. 

sca'pi  form,  resembling  a  scape. 

scar,  a  mark  left  upon  a  stem  or  branch  by 
the  fall  of  a  leaflet  or  frond,  or  upon  a 
seed,  by  the  .separation  of  its  support. 

sca'ri  ose,  or  sca'ri  ous,  thin,  dry,  membra- 
nous and  not  green. 

BcSt'tered,  irregular  in  position ;  haxnng 
no  regular  order :  .sometimes  used  for 
alternate. 

8^1 'on,  a  young  shoot  used  for  grafting. 

scle  r?n'chy  ma,  hard,  .stony  tis.sue. 

sole'rous,  hard  ;  bony  ;  indurated. 

acSb'i  form,  resembling  sawdust. 


scro  bic'u  late,  having  numerous  small  shal- 
low depressions  or  hollows  ;  pitted. 
scQrf,  minute  scales  on  the  surface  of  many 

leaves,  as  in  the  (Joosefoot. 
scQr'fi  ness,  quality  of  being  scurfy. 
scu'tate,    or     scu'ti  form,    buckler-shaped ; 

shield-shaped  ;  round,  or  nearly  round. 
scu'tel  late,  or  scu  tgl'li  form,  saucer-shaped, 

or  jjlatter-.shaped. 
sea'green,  light  bluish-green;  glauce.scent. 
se'cund,  arranged  on  one  side  only  ;  turned 

only  one  u-ay. 
sSc'uu  dine,  the  second  coat  or   integument 

of  an  ovule  ;  legmen. 
seed,  matured  ovule. 
sgg'ment,  a  subdivi,sio7i  or  lobe  oj  any  cleft 

body. 
sgg're  gate,   separated  from  others  of  the 

.same  kind. 
sem  i  lu'uar,  shaped  like  a  half  moon. 
sSm'i  na.\,pertai?iing  to,  containing,  or  con- 
sisting of,  .seed  or  semen. 
sem  i  nif 'er  ous,    seed-bearing  ;     producing 

seeds. 
sem  i-sSg'it  tate,  partly  sagittate. 
sem  per  vl 'rent,  always  fresh;  evergreen. 
s§n'ary,  containing  six  ;  in  sixes. 
se'pal,  one  of  the  foliaceous  parts  of  the  calyx. 
sSp'al  old,  sepal-like. 
sgp'arated  flowers,  those  having  stamens  or 

jjis.  ' :  only. 
sSp'tate,  divided  by  partitions. 
sep'ten  ate,   having  parts  in  sevens;    hep- 

tamerous. 
sgp'ti  qi  dal,  dividing  the  partitions  ;  said  of 

a  method  of  dehiscence  in  which  the  pod 

splits  through  the  partitions  and  is  divided 

into  its  component  carpels. 
sep  tTf 'ra  gal,  breaking  from  the  partitions  ; 

said  of  a  method  of  dehiscence  in  which 

the  valves  of  a  pod  break  away  front  the 

partitions,  and  these  remain  attached   to 

the  common  axis. 
sSp'tum,  a  partition  between  two  spaces. 
se'rial,  or  se'ri  ate,  in  roics ;  as  biserial,  in 

tivo  rows. 
se  rl'ceous,  silky. 
Rer^t'inons,  appearing  or  blossoming  later 

in  the  season  than  is  customary  with  tdlied 

species. 
sSr'rate,  notched  on  the  edge  like  a  sau-. 
sSs'sile,  resting  directly  upon  the  main  stem 

or  branch,  without  a  petiole  or  footstalk. 
se  ta'ceous,  bristle-like  ;  set  with  bri.stles 
se'tae,  bristles. 
se'tous,     or     se  tTg'er ous,     covered      nith 

bristles. 
sSt'ula,  a  diminutive  bristle. 
sSt'u  lose,  provided  u-ifh  .setnlcp. 
sex  Sn'pii  lir,  .six-angled. 
slieatli.  Ihe  base  of  a  leaf  when  covering  a 

.stem  or  branch. 
slieath'ing,  inclosing  with  a  sheath. 
shiSld '-shaped,  scutate  ;  peltate. 


334 


GLOSSARY, 


shrub,  a  woody  perennial  plunl  less  than 
fifteen  feet  in  height. 

sTg'moid,  curved  in  two  directions,  like  the 
letter  s  or  the  Gh-eek  sigma. 

sil'i  cle,  the  short  pod  of  many  cruciferous 
plants. 

sil'ique,  the  long  pod  of  many  cruciferous 
plants. 

sTl'i  quose.  bearing  siliques  {us  the  crucifers). 

sTlk'y,  glossy,  with  a  coat  of  fine  and  soft, 
close-pressed,  straight  hairs. 

sil'ver  y,  shining  white  or  bluish-gray,  usn- 
ally  from  a  silky  pubescence. 

sTm'ple,  of  one  piece  ;  not  compound. 

sTn'is  trorse,  twining  from  right  to  left. 

sTn'u  ate,  having  a  wavy  margin  or  edge. 

si'mis,  a  recess  or  bay ;  the  reentering  angle 
between  two  lobes  or  projections. 

sleep  of  plants,  a  state  of  plants,  usually  at 
night,  when  their  leaflets  approach  each 
other,  and  the  flowers  close  and  droop,  or 
are  covered  by  the  folded  leaves. 

sob  o  lifer  ous,  bearing  shoots  from  near 
the  ground  {sob'o  les). 

sol'i  ta  ry,  growing  alone  or  singly. 

sOr'did,  dull  or  dirty  in  hue. 

so  re'di  ate,  bearing  patches  of  granular 
bodies  on  the  surface. 

soro'sis,  a  fleshy  multijile  fruit,  as  the 
Mulberry. 

so'rus,  a  fruit  dot  of  ferns. 

spadT'ceous,  chestnut-colored  ;  bearing  flow- 
ers on  a  spadix. 

spa'dix,  a  spike  with  a  fleshy  axis. 

span,  the  distance  between  the  tip  of  the 
thumb  and  the  little  finger  when  the  hand 
is  outstretched,  —  about  six  or  seven  inches. 

spa  tha'ceous,  having  or  resembling  a  spathe. 

spathe,  a  large  bract,  or  a  pair  nf  bracts, 
inclosing  a  floiver  cluster. 

spSt'ulate,  shaped  like  a  druggisfs  spatula. 

spe''cies,  the  unit  in  natural  history  classifl- 
cation;  a  group  of  individuals  believed 
to  be  descended  from  common  ancestors, 
agreeing  in  essential  characteristics,  and 
capable  of  continued  fertile  reproduction. 

sper'ma  to  phore,  sper'mo  phore,  or  sper'- 
ino  spore,  one  of  the  names  of  the  placenta. 

spi  'cate,  or  spi  'ci  form,  resembling  a  spike  ; 
spike-shaped. 

spike,  an  inflorescence  in  which  the  flowers 
are  sessile  on  a  lengthened  axis. 

spike 'let,  a  little  spike,  as  in  grasses. 

spTn'dle-shaped,  tapering  from  the  middle 
both  ways. 

spine,  a  looody  thorn. 

spi  nSs'cent,  armed  icith  spines  ;  becoming 
hard  and  thorny ;  tapering  gradually  to 
a  rigid,  leafless  point. 

spi  nif 'er  ous,  or  spi 'nose,  thorny;  full  of 
spines. 

spi'ral  arrangement  {of  leaves),  an  arrange- 
ment wherein  the  leaves  are  alternately 
arranged  around  the  stem  or  branch. 


spi'ral  cells  or  vessels,  long,  slender  cells 
arranged  in  a  coil. 

sponge'let,  or  spon'gi  ole,  a  su,pposed  spuiiye- 
like  expansion  of  the  tip  of  a  rootlet  for 
absorbing  water. 

spo  rad'ic,  widely  dispersed. 

spo  ran'gi  um,  a  spore  case  in  cryptogamous 
plants. 

spore,  rt  reproductive  grain  in  flowerless 
plants,  analogous  to  seeds  in  flowering 
plants. 

spore  case,  a  sporangium. 

spo'ro  phore,  the  generative  organ  in  certairi 
plants  which  reproduces  asexually. 

sport,  a  newly  appeared  variation. 

spor'ule,  a  little  spore  ;  a  spore. 

spumes'cent,  appearing  like  froth. 

spQr,  a  stiff,  sharp  spine;  a  slender  pro- 
jecting appendage. 

squa  ma'ceous,  squa'mate,  or  squa  mose', 
covered  with  or  consisting  of  scales  ;  re- 
sembling a  scale. 

squa'mi  form,  having  the  shape  of  a  scale. 

squam'ulate,  or  squam'ulose,  having  little 
scales. 

squar  rose',  divided  into  shreds  or  jags ; 
having  ividely  divaricating  scales,  as  the 
involucral  scales  of  the  CompositcB. 

stalk,  the  stem,  petiole,  peduncle,  etc.,  of  a 
plant. 

sta'mens,  the  organs  that  produce  pollen, 
consisting  of  filament  and  anther. 

stSm'inate,  furnished  with  stamens;  pro- 
ducing stamens.  A  staminate  floiver  is 
one  having  stamens,  but  lacking  pistils. 

stSm'i  no'di  um,  a  stamen  ivithout  an  an- 
ther ;  an  organ  resembling  an  abortive 
stamen. 

stSnd'ard,  the  upper  petal,  or  banner,  of  a 
papilionaceous  corolla. 

starch,  a  ividely  diffused  vegetable  substance 
found  especially  in  seeds,  bidbs,  and  tu- 
bers, from  which  it  is  extracted  as  a  white 
granular  or  powdery  substance,  without 
taste  or  odor. 

sta'tion,  the  particidar  situation  in  which 
a  plant  occurs. 

stel'late,  or  stel'lular,  starry,  or  star-like; 
spreading  out  from  a  common  center,  like 
a  star. 

stem'less,  destitute,  or  apparently  destitute, 
of  a  stem. 

ste  noph'yl  lous,  having  narrow  leaves. 

ster'ile,  barren;  not  bearing  seeds ;  unpro- 
ductive. 

stig'ma,  the  part  of  the  pistil,  usually  the 
end,  fltted  to  receive  the  pollen. 

stig  mSt'ic,  of  or  pertaining  to  a  stigma. 

stings,  stinging  hairs;  hairs  sufiUciently 
rigid  to  perforate  animal  tissue,  and  of 
ivhich,  having  entered,  the  apex  breaks 
off,  discharging  an  irritating  fluid. 

stipe,  the  stalk  of  the  ovary  or  ovaries;  the 
stem  of  a  Mushroom, 


GLOSSARY. 


33n 


sti'pel,  u)i  apiH-nduye  to  a  leaflet  corrpsijund- 

ing  to  a  stipule  in  o  leu/. 
Bti^Vla.te,  J'urnis/ied  irith  stipelx,  us  in  the 

bean  tribe. 
stTp'i  tate,  supported  on  d  stipe. 
stlp'u  late,  furnished  with  stipules. 
stTp'ule,   an    appendage,   or  little  leaf,  on 

each    side  of   the    base  of   a    petiole  or 

leaf. 
stSck,  a  word  used  for  race  or  source  ;  also, 

for  any  root-like  base  from  which  the  herb 

grows  up. 
sto'lon,  a  branch  at  the  base  of  a  plant  which 

roots  easilij. 
sto'lo  infer  ous,  producing  stolons. 
tito'ma,  a  mouth ;   one  of  the  openings   in 

the    epidermis    of   a   leaf ;    a    breathing 

pore. 
stramin'e  ous,  straw-like,  or  straw-colored. 
strSp'-shaped,  yf«/,  narrow,  and  straight. 
stri  'ate,  or  stri  'at  ed,  marked  with  slender 

longitudi)Hd  bars  or  strijies. 
strict,  erect  and  very  straight. 
stri  gose',  set  ivith  stiff,  straight  bristles. 
8tr5b'ile,  a  multiple  fruit  in  the  form  of  a 

cone,  as  of  the  Hop  and  Pine. 
Strom  bu'li  form,  twisted,  like  a  spiral  shell. 
stro'phi  o  late,  furnished  with  a  strophiole 

or  caruncle  about  the  hilum. 
stro'phi  ole,  a  crest-like  excrescence  about  the 

hilum  of  certain  seeds. 
struc'tur  al  b5t'an  y,  the  science  which  treats 

of  the  organs  or  parts  of  plants,  of  their 

forms  and  uses. 
Btnj'ma,  a  wen  ;  a  swelling  or  protuberance 

of  any  organ. 
stu  pose',  composed  of  or  having  tufted  fila- 
ments like  low. 
style,  that  part  of  the  pistil  between  the  ovary 

and  the  stigma. 
sty  ITf 'er  ous,  bearing  one  or  more  styles. 
sty'loid,  having  the  form  of  or  resembling  a 

style. 
sty  lo  po'di  um,  an  epigynous  disk,   or  en- 
largement at  the  base  of  the  style. 
sQb'  class,  a  natural  group,  more  important 

tfutn  an  Order, 
sube'reous,  or  su'berose,  having  a  corky 

texture. 
Riih  or'der,  a  group  of  genera  a  little  lower 

in  rank  than  an  Order,  and  of  greater  im- 
portance than  a  Tribe  or  Family, 
sfib'  tribe,  a  divi.s-inn  of  a  Tribe, 
eu'bu  late,   awl-shaped ;   very  narrow,  and 

tapering  gradually  to  a  fine  point  from  a 

broad  ish  base, 
am-  else',    appearing  as    if   cut   off  at  the 

extremity. 
sfic'cu  bona,  having  the  leaves  so  placed  that 

the  upper  part  of  each  one  is  covered  by 

the  base  of  the  leaf  above. 
sHc'cu  lent,  very  juicy  and  celhdar. 
sfick'er,  (/  shoot  coining  from  a  part  of  the 

stem  beneath  the  ground. 


suf  fru  tds'ceut,  slightly  woody  at  the  base. 

8uf  f rij'ti  cose,  woody  in  the  lower  part  of  Ihi 
stem  ;  more  woody  than  suffrutescent. 

bQl'cate,  furrowed. 

su  pe'ri  or,  above  the  ovary. 

8u  pe'ri  or  ca'lyx,  calyx  adherent  to  ovary. 

su  pe'ri  or  o'vary,  ovary  free  from  calyx. 

su  per  nu'mer  ar  y  (buds),  exceeding  the  num- 
ber stated  or  prescribed. 

Hu'per  vo  lute',  rolled  upfront  the  .tides. 

su'piue,  lying  flat,  with  face  upward. 

su'pra-Sx'il  la  ry,  situated  above  the  axU. 

su'pra-de  c5m'pouiid,  divided  many  times. 

sQr'cu  lose,  producing  suckers,  or  shoots  re- 
.sembling  suckers. 

sus  p§nd'ed,  hanging  downward. 

su'tural,  jfcrtaining  to  a  suture;  taking 
place  at  a  suture. 

su'ture,  the  line  of  junction  of  two  contiguous 
parts  grown  together. 

syco'nus,  a  collective,  fleshy  fruit,  in  which 
the  ovaries  are  hidden  within  a  hollow 
receptacle,  as  in  the  Fig. 

syl  ves'tri  an,  growing  in  woods;  sylvan. 

sym'me  try,  equality  in  the  number  of  par  It 
of  the  successive  circles  in  a  flower  ;  like- 
ness in  form  and  size  of  floral  organs  of 
the  same  kind;  regularity. 

sym pSt'al  ous,  having  the  petals  united; 
gamopetalous. 

sym  phyl'lous,  with  perianth  leaves  united. 

sym'pode,  or  sjTn  po'di  um,  a  stem  resem- 
bling a  simple  axis,  but  composed  of  su- 
perposed branches,  as  the  .stem  of  the 
grapevine. 

synSn'therous,  having  the  staniens  united 
by  their  anthers. 

syn  car'pi  imi,  an  aggregate  fruit,  in  which 
the  ovaries  cohere  in  a  solid  mass. 

syii  car 'pons,  composed  of  several  carpels, 
united  into  one  ovary. 

syn  ge  ne'sious,  having  the  stamens  attached 
to  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  ring. 

syn'o  nym,  an  equivalent  name. 

sjTi  sSp'al  ous,  Aarinjr  united  sepals;  ga mo- 
sepal  ous. 

sys  tern  St'ie  b5t'an  y,  that  department  of 
botany  uhich  pertains  to  the  classification 
of  plants. 


T. 


tail,  any  long  and  slender  prolongation   of 

an  organ. 
ta'per-point'ed,  acuminate. 
tSp'root,  a  simple  descending  root. 
taw'ny,  a  dull,  yellowish  brown. 
tax  5n'o  my,  that  division  of  natural  science 

ivhich  treats  of  the  classification  of  animals 

and  plants. 
tSg'men,  the  inner  seed  coat. 
tSn'dril,   a  shred-like  pmcess.    irhirh    helps 

the  plant  to  cling  to  other  plants. 


336 


GLOSSARY. 


terat51'ogy,  that  branch  oj  biological  sci- 
ence u'hich  treats  of  abnormal  and  un- 
usual formations. 
te  rete',  cylindrical  and  slightly  tapering  ; 
columnar. 

ter'mi  ual,  situated  at  the  end  or  apex. 

ter  mi  nol'o  gy,  the  terms  used  in  a  busi- 
ness or  science;  nomenclature;  technical 
terms. 

ter'nate,  in  threes. 

tes'sel  la  ted,  checkered ;  marked  like  a 
checker-board. 

tes'ta,  tJie  outer  seed  coat. 

testa'ceous,  having  a  dull  red-brick  or 
brownish-yellow  color. 

tet'ra  dyii'a  mous,  having  four  long  and  tivo 
short  stamens. 

te  trag'o  ual,  having  four  prominent  longi- 
tudinal angles. 

te  trSg'y  nous,  having  four  pistils. 

tet'ra  spore,  a  non-sexual  quadruple  spore. 

thal'a  mi  flo'rous,  bearing  the  stamens  and 
petals  directly  on  the  torus  or  thalamus. 

thal'a  mus,  the  receptacle  of  a  flower;  a 
torus;  a  thallus. 

thSl'lo  geu,  or  thal'lo  pbji;e,  one  of  a  large 
class  or  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
including  all  flowerless  plants,  composed 
of  cellular  tissue,  and  showing  no  distinc- 
tion of  root,  stem,  and  leaf. 

thal'lus,  a  7nass  of  cellular  tissue,  usually  in 
the  form  of  a  flat  stratum  or  expansion, 
instead  of  stem  and  leaves. 

the'ca,  shenth  ;  case  ;  spore  case. 

the'ca  phore,  a  surface  or  receptacle  bearing 
a  theca  or  theciv ;  the  stipe  upon  which  a 
simple  pistil  is  sometimes  borne,  being  the 
petiole  of  the  carpellary  leaf. 

thorn,  a  hard  and  sharp-pointed  projection 
from  a  tvoody  stem  ;  a  spiiie. 

throat,  orifice  of  a  monopetalous  corolla. 

thyrse,  or  thyr'sus,  a  dense  egg-shaped  pan- 
icle, as  in  the  Lilac. 

tTs'sues,  the  materials  of  which  plants  are 
composed. 

to'men  tose,  covered  ivith  short,  matted, 
woolly  hairs. 

tongue'-shaped,  lojig  and  fiat,  but  thickish 
and  blunt. 

ioothedi,  furnished  with  teeth  or  sharp  pro- 
jections of  any  sort  on  the  margin;  as  a 
saw-toothed  margin. 

top '-shaped,  inversely  conical. 

tor'ulose,  cylindrical,  with  alternate  swel- 
lings and  contractions. 

to'rus,  the  axis  on  which  all  the  parts  of  a 
fiower,  except  the  calyx,  are  seated. 

tra'che  a,  a  spiral  duct. 

tra  chy  sper'mous,  rough-seeded. 

transverse',  across;  being  right  and  left, 
instead  of  up  and  down. 

tree,  a  woody  plant,  branching  so  as  to  form 
a  symmetrical  head,  growing  to  tJtf  height 
of  tiventy  feet,  or  higher. 


tri  a  dgl'phous,  having  stamens  joined  by  fila- 
ments into  three  bundles. 

tri  an'drous,  having  three  distinct  and  equal 
stamens  in  the  same  flower. 

tribe,  a  group  higher  than  a  Genus. 

tri  ehom'a  tous,  having  the  nature  of  hair  or 
pubescence. 

trieh'ome,  a  hair  on  the  surface  oj  a  leaj  or 
stem,  or  any  modification  oj  a  hair. 

tri  ehot'o  mous,  three-forked  ;  trifurcate. 

trieoc'cous,  havhig  three  roundish  one- 
seeded  carpels. 

tri  'col  ored,  having  three  colors. 

tri  cus'pid  ate,  ending  in  three  points  ;  three- 
pointed  ;  tridentate. 

tri  eu'ui  al,  lasting  three  years. 

tri  fa'ri  ous,  facing  three  ways;  in  three  ver- 
tical ranks. 

tri 'fid,  three-cleft;  split  to  the  middle  into 
three  j^arts. 

tri  fo'li  ate,  with  three  leaves  or  leafiets. 

triffir'cate,  three-forked ;  trichotomous ; 
triangular. 

trlg'ynous,  having  three  pistils  or  styles. 

trilo'bate,  having  three  lobes. 

tri  loc'u  lar,  having  three  cells  or  cavities. 

tri'mer  ous,  having  the  parts  in  threes. 

tri  nerv'ate,  three-nerved,  or  with  three  slen- 
der ribs. 

trioe'cious,  having  three  sorts  of  fiower s  on 
the  same  or  different  plants,^  as  in  the  Red 
3faple. 

tri  part'i  ble,  divisible  into  three  parts. 

trip'artite,  divided  into  three  parts;  more 
deeply  split  than  trifid. 

tri  pet'al  ous,  having  three  petals. 

triph'yl  lous,  having  three  leaves. 

tri  pTn'nate,  th7-ice  pinnate. 

tri'ple  veined,  having  three  veins  or  nerves. 

tri  que'trous,  three-sided;  three-angled. 

trise'rial,  or  trise'riate,  arranged  in  three 
vertical  or  spiral  rows. 

tris'tieh  ous,  arranged  in  three  vertical 
rows. 

tri  stig  mat'ic,  or  tri  stig'ma  tose,  having 
thi'ce  stigmas. 

tri  sul'cate,  having  three  furrows  or  forks. 

tri  ter'nate,  thrice  ternate. 

triv'i  al  name,  the  specific  name. 

troch'le  ar,  pulley-shaped. 

trum'pet-shaped,  tubular,  and  enlarged  at 
or  toivard  the  summit. 

trun'cate,  cut  off  at  the  tip. 

trunk,  the  main  stem. 

try'ma,  a  drupe,  or  drupaceous  nut,  tvith  a 
fieshy  exocarp. 

tube,  a  hollow,  elongated  body,  usually 
cylindrical ;  applied  especially  to  a  gamo- 
petalous  corolla  or  gamosepalous  calyx. 

tube'-form,  tubular  ;  trujnpel-shaped. 

tu'ber,  a  fieshy  underground  stem,  or  branch, 
with  buds. 

tuber'cular,  having  the  form  of  a  tuber; 
bearing  tvbei-cles. 


GLOSSARY. 


887 


tu  ber'cu  late,    covered    with  warls    or    tu- 
bercles. 
tu  ber  If  er  ous,  bearing  or  producing  tubers. 
tu'berose,  consisting  of  or  bearing  tubers; 

resembling  a  tuber. 
tu'bu  lar  co  rSl'la,  a  corolla  having  the  form 

of  a  tube. 
tu'bu  li  flo'rous,  having  the  flowers  of  a  head 

all  with  tubular  corollas. 
tu'inid,  swollen  or  inflated. 
tu'ni  cate,  covered  or  coated  with  layers,  as 

a  bulb. 
tQr'binate,  shaped  like  a  top  or    inverted 

cone. 
tu'ri  on,  a  shoot  or  sprout  from  the  ground. 
twin'ing,    ascending    by    coiling    round    a 

support. 
type,  the  ideal  pattern. 
typ'i  cal  flow'er,  a  flower  which  serves  for  a 

pattern. 


u. 


u  ITg'i  nose,  growing  in  muddy  or  swampy 

places. 
Qm'bel,  an  inflorescence  in  which  the  pedi- 
cels all  spring  from  the  same  point,  like 

the  ribs  of  an  umbrella. 
um'bellate,  bearing  umbels. 
Qm'bel  let,  a  small  or  partial  umbel. 
um  bTl'i  cate,  having  a  sharp  depression  at 

one  end. 
Qm'bo  nate,   bossed ;    having    a  conical  or 

rounded  projection,  like  a  boss  {umbo). 
um  brSc'u  li  form,  umbrella-shaped. 
un  armed',  having  no  stings  or  thorns. 
Qn'cial,  an  inch  in  length. 
Qn'ci  nate,  hooked ;    bent  at  the  tip  in  the 

form  of  a  hook. 
llu'der  shrub,  a  low  shrub. 
Qn'dulate,  wavy. 
une'qual  lj»  pin'nate,  pi««cr/c,  n-ith  an  odd 

terminal  leaf. 
un  gulc'u  late,  furnished  with  hooks  or  claivs. 
un  i  cgl'lu  lar,  composed  of  a  single  cell. 
un  i  flo'rous,  having  only  one  flower. 
un  i  fo'li  ate,  having  only  one  leaf. 
u'ui  form,  having  always  the  same  form. 
u  ni  ISt'er  al,  one-sided  ;  on  one  side  only. 
u  ni  15c'u  lar,  having  only  one  cell  or  cavity. 
u  ni  se'ri  al,  having  only  one  row  or  series. 
u  ni  s6x'u  al,  having  stamens  or  pistils  only. 
u'ni  valved,  having  but  one  valve. 
un  sym  mSt'ri  cal  flow'ers,  flowers  in  which 

similar  parts    are  of  different    size   or 

shape,  or  the  parts  of  successive  circles 

differ  in  number. 
Qr'ce  o  late,  shaped  like  a  pitcher  or  urn. 
u'tri  cle,    a    Utile    bladdery    seed-vessel ;    a 

little  sac  or  vesicle,  as  the  air  cell  of  a 

sea-iceed. 
u  trTc'u  lar,  resembling  a  small  bladder  or 

bag. 

J'R.  Fl.  —  23 


vSg'i  nate,  invested  with  a  sheath.    Vaginate 
leaf,  07ie  invested  by  the  tubular  base  of  a 
leaf 
vSlv'ate,  opening  as  by  doors. 
vSlve,  one  of  the  pieces  into  which  a  capsule 
naturally  separates    when    it    bursts;    a 
small  portion  of  certain  anthers,  opening 
like  a  trap-door. 
vSlv'u  lar,  having  valves;  serving  as  a  valve. 
va  ri  'e  ty,  a  particular  form  of  species. 
vSs'cu  lar  cryp'to  gams,  cryptogams  that  ha  ve 

vascular  tissue. 
vSs'cu  lar  tls'sue,  tissue  furnished  ivith  ves- 
sels or  ducts. 
vault'ed,  arched. 
veins,    the    syston   of   branching   vascular 

woody  tissue  seen  in  leaves. 
vein'lets,    or    vein'u  lets,    tittle    veins,    or 
smaller  branches  in  the  network  of  a  leaf. 
ve'late,  having  a  veil;  veiled. 
ve  lu'ti  nous,  velvety. 
vSn'e  nate,  poisoned. 
venose',  having  numerous  or  conspicuous 

veins  ;   veiny. 
vSn'tral,  pertaining  to  that  side  of  an  organ 
of  a  flower  which  looks  towards  the  axis  or 
center  of  the  flower  ;  opposite  0/ dorsal. 
vSn'tricose,   swelling  otit  on  one   side,   or- 

unequally. 
vSn'ulose,  having  veinlets. 
vermic'ular,    worm-like;    shaped    like    a 

worm. 
ver'nal,  appearing  in  the  springtime. 
ver  na'tion,  the  arrangement  of  leaves  within 

the  leaf  bud  ;  prefoliation. 
ver'ni  cose,    having   a   brilliantly  polished 

surface. 
vgr'rucose,  covered  with  warts;    tubercn- 

late ;  warty. 
ver'satile  (anther),  swinging  or  turning  on 

its  support. 
ver'tex,  summit ;  apex. 
ver'ti  cal,  up  and  down  ;  parallel  with  the 

axis. 
ver  ti  ?il  ISs'ter,  a  whorl  of  flowers,  appar- 
ently of  one  cluster,  but  composed  of  two 
opposite  axillary  cymes. 
ver  tiQ'il  late,  whorled. 
ve  sTc'u  lar,  bladdery. 
vgs'pertine,  blossoming  in  the  evening. 
vSs'sels,  ducts. 

vexTl'lum,  the  upper  petal  of  a  papiliona- 
ceous flower  ;   the  standard. 
vil  lose',  covered  uith  long,  fine  hairs. 
vi  mln'e  ous,  producing  long,  slender  twigs 

or  shoots. 
vine,  a  woody  climbing  or  ttrining  stem. 
vi  rgs'cent.  or  vir  i  dSs'cent,  greenish  ;  turn- 
ing green. 
vir'gate,  straight  and  slender  ;   having  the 

form  of  a  straight  rod. 
vTe'cid,  or  vTa'cous,  sticky  ;  glutinous^ 


3S8 


GLOSSARY. 


vitSl'line, pe7-iaining  to  the  yolk  of  the  egg ; 


vTt'ta  (pi.  vit'tse),  one  of  the  oil  tubes  in  the 
fruit  of  umbelliferous  plants. 

vi  vip'ar  ous,  sprouting  or  ger?ninating  while 
attached  to  the  parent  plant. 

vol'uble,  having  the  poiver  or  habit  of  turn- 
ing or  twining. 

vo  lute',  rolled  up  in  any  direction. 

Tol'va,  a  sac-like  envelope  of  certain  fungi, 
which  bursts  open  as  the  plant  develops, 

w. 

wav'y,  undulating  on  the  border  or  surface. 

wax'y,  resembling  ivax  in  texture  or  appear - 
ance. 

wedge '-shaped,  broad  and  truncate  at  the 
summit,  and  tapering  down  to  the  base. 

wheel-shaped,  expanding  into  aflat,  circular 
border  at  top,  with  scarcely  any  tube,  as  a 
wheel-shaped  corolla. 

whSrl,  a  circle  of  tivo  or  more  leaves,  flow- 
ers, or  other  organs,  about  the  same  part 
or  joint  of  a  stem. 

wh6rled,  arranged  in  whorls. 

wing,  any  membraneous  expansion  ;  either 
of  the  ttvo  side  jjefals  of  a  papilionaceous 
floiver. 

■winged,  fur 7iished  icith  a  leaf-like  append- 
age, as  the  fruit  of  the  Ash  and  Elm. 

witch  grass,  a  troublesome  weed,  with  creep- 
ing underground  stems, 

wood,  the  hard  or  solid  part  of  a  stem  or 
branch. 

wood  cell,  a  slender  cylindrical  or  pris- 
matic cell,  usually  tapering  to  a  point  at 
both  ends,  and  the  principal  constituent 
of  woody  fiber. 


wood'y  plant,  a  shrub,  tree,  or  plant  in 
which  the  stems  and  branches  are  woody. 

wool'ly,  clothed  with  long  and  entangled 
soft  hairs. 


xan'thic,  yellowish. 

xe  nog'a  my,  cross-fertilization  ;  fertiliza- 
tion of  a  flower  by  pollen  from  a  flower 
of  another  plant  of  the  same  species. 

xe'rophil,  a  plant  that  requires  great  heat  and 
little  moisture,  and  is  specially  adapted  to 
arid  regions. 

xy'lem,  that  portion  of  a  fibro-vascidar  bun- 
dle developed  into  wood  cells. 

xy'lo  carp,  a  hard  and  woody  fruit. 


Y. 


yeast  plant,  a  unicellular  plant  which  is  the 
active  agent  of  fermentation ;  it  has  the 
power  of  disintegrating  starch  and  setting 
carbon  dioxide  free. 


Z. 


zo'o  phyte,  any  one  of  the  numerous  species 
of  itivertebrate  animals  which  more  or 
less  resemble  plants  in  appearance  or 
mode  of  growth. 

zo'o  spore,  a  spore  provided  ivith  one  or 
more  slender  cilia,  by  the  vibration  of 
which  it  swims  in  the  water. 

zyg'o  spore,  a  spore  formed  by  the  union  of 
two  or  more  cells. 


INDEX. 


BIES 


29,  308,  309 


balsamea  .'Jf  '9 

var.  loiigifolia  ■><•'.* 

var.  variegata  309 

Acacia  IS,  111,  112 

Catechu  112 

dealbata  112 

pycnantha  112 

Senegal  111,  112 

Seyal  112 

Suiua  112 

Acer  10,91-93 

nigrum  91 

saccharinum  91 

var.  nigrum  91 

Achras  sapota  17G 

^gilops  253,  254 

Agave  277 

Alexandrian  Senna  108 

Allspice  20,  135,  130 

Almond  19,  122 

Aloe,  aloes  28,  277,  278 

ferox  278 

socotrina  277 

apicata  277,  278 

vulgaris  277 

American  Arbor  Vita'        312 

American  Balsam  Fir         3(i9 

American  Beecli  255 

American  Elm  231,  232 

American  Gooseberry        13(1 

American  Hazelnut  254 

American  Ipecacuanha      103 

American  Larcli  309,  310 

American  Senna  108 

American  Strawberry        110 

American  Turkey  Oak       249 

Amorpha  fruticosa  90 

Ampelide*  0,  10,  88-91 

Am j-gdalus  communis        122 

Anacardiaceae        7,  10,  93-90 

Anacardium  occidentale  10.95 

Ananassa  sativa     2S,  '2i<'.K  270 

Andropogon  saccharatmn 

294,  295 
Anemone  12, 30-33 

acutiloba  31 

Caroliniana  30 

cylindrica  30 

decapetala  30 

dichotoma  30,  31 

hepatira  31 

multifida  31,32 

nemorosa  31,  .32 

parvitlora  32 

patens  32 


Anemone  patens,  var.  Nut- 

taliana  32 

Pennsylvanica  30,  31 

Virginiana  32,  33 

Anemonella  thalictroides 

12,  33 
Augiosperms,  apetalous 

dicotyledonous  0-8,  9, 10 
dicotyledonous  5, 12-27 
glumiferous  monocot- 

yledonous  1 1 

monocotyledonous  5, 28, 29 
petaloideous  monocot- 
yledonous 10 
spadiciflorous  mono- 
cotyledonous 10 
sympetalous  dicotyled- 
onous                           S,  9 
Anise                       21,  147,  148 
Annatto                       14,  03,  (^4 
Anthemis               22,  100,  107 
arvensis                           100 
nobilis                             100 
var.  tiore  pleno              100 
Apetake  5 
Apetalous  dicotyledonous 

angiosperms  9,  10 

Apium  graveolens  21, 140, 147 
Apocynaceie  90 

Apopetahe  5 

ApopetalfT,  inferior         12-21 
Apopetalous  dicotyledon- 
ous angiosperms  0-8 
Apple                       19,  123-125 
Apple,  Carthage  139 
Crab  125 
Apple-bearing  Sage             204 
Apple  Pine                            .302 
Apricot                            18.  120 
Arachis  hypog.-pa     17,  99,  100 
Arbor  Vit'n-                     29,  312 
Areca  Catechu      29,  279,  2S0 
Arrow-leaved  Violet       (X),  (H 
.\rrowroot               28,  201-203 
Asafivtida                21,  149-151 
Asclepiadaceap  iXi 
Asparagus  officinalis     28,  274 
Astragalus                  17,  97-99 
gummifer                    98,  90 
tragacantha  98 
Atropa                     24,  191,  192 
belladonna                       191 
Mandragora                     191 
Austrian  Pine                       .'501 
Autumnal  Marrow              144 
Avena                      29,  29S,  -;•;» 
sativa                      298,  299 

339 


E 


ALM  of  Gilead 


Balsam  Fir  309 

Banana  28,  265,  266 

Banyan  Tree  235 

Baptisia  tiuctoria  96 

B.irbadoes  aloes  278 

Barberry  13,  42 

Barley  29,  296-298 

Bassia  latifolia  176 

Parkii  176 

Battledoor  Barley  297 

Beaked  Hazelnut  254 

Beau  17,  lOS-105 

Beech  27,  25.5,  250 

Beech  of  Europe  255 

Beechwood  Muskmelon     141 

Beer  '2M,  267 

Beet  20,  208,  209,  2^ 

Bell  Flower  170,  171 

Bell  Pepper  193 

Bell-shaped  Cranberry       173 

Bengal  Grass  300 

BerberidaceiB        6,  13,  42,  43 

Berberis  vulgaris  13,  42 

Bertholletia  excelsa     20,  137 

Beta  20,  208,  209 

maritima  209 

vulgaris  208,  209 

var.  cicla  208 

var.  mangel-wlirzel       208 

var.  rapa  208 

Betel  Nut  29,  279,  280 

Betel  Pepper  214 

Beverage-producing  Plants  — 

Apple  (cider)  125 

Banana  (beer  and  wine)  2(V7 

Barley  (whiskey)  298 

Cocoa  72 

Cocoanut  Palm  (milk, 

vinegar,  and  wine)     283 
Coffee  162 

Currant  (wine)  129 

Grape  (wine)  90 

Hops  (beer)  234 

Indian  Corn  (whiskey) 

28r>-288 
Maize  (whiskey)  288 

New  Jersey  Tea  88 

Oats  (whiskey)  299 

Peach  (brandy)  122 

Pear  (perry)  127 

Raspberrv  (brandy)       114 
Rye  (whiskey)  296 

Tea  66 

Bind-weed  .T.ilap  184.  186 

Birch-leaved  Beech    255,  256 


340 


INDEX. 


Bird-foot  Violet 

59 

Bird  Pepper 

193 

Bird's-eye  Maple 

01 

Biting  Crowfoot 

34 

Bitter  Almond 

122 

Bitter  Cassava 

227,  228 

Bitter  Orange 

81 

Bixa  orellana 

14,  i\3,  64 

Bixinese                 6, 

14,  63,  64 

Blackberry 

18 

Black  Cap 

113 

Black  Currant 

128,  129 

Black  Huckleberry 

172 

Black  Jack  Oak 

249 

Black  Larch 

309,  310 

Black  Maple 

91 

Black  Mustard 

48,  49 

Black  Oak 

248 

Black  Pepper 

214,  215 

Black  Raspberry 

113 

Black-rock  Muskmelon      141 

Black  Spanish  Watermelon 

142 

Black  Spruce 

307 

Black  Tea 

06 

Black  Walnut 

239,  240 

Blackwood 

108,  109 

Black-wooded    Walnut    Tree 

239,  240 

Ble  Saracin 

211 

Blood  Orange 

79 

Blueberry 

172 

Blue  Cardinal  Flower       170, 

Blue  Sweet  Violet 



Bliunea  balsamifera 

218 

Bog  Fir 

304 

Bore  Cole 

47 

Borneo  Camphor 

218 

Borraginaceae    8,  23 

,  182,  183 

Box 

27,  225 

Bradford  Watermelon       142 

Brandy 

114,  122 

Brassica 

13,  46-5i 

alba 

48,49 

campestris 

49-51 

var.  rutabaga 

50 

juncea 

48,49 

napus 

51 

nigra 

48,49 

oleracea 

47,48 

rapa 

50 

var.  depressa 

50 

Brazil  Nut 

20,  137 

Brazil  Wood 

17,  109 

Bread-producing  Plants  — 

Arrowroot 

262 

Barley 

•298 

Bitter  Cassava 

228 

Buckwheat 

211 

Cocoanut  Palm 

283 

Date  Palm 

281 

Indian  Corn 

288 

Oats 

299 

Rice 

292 

Rye 

296 

Sago  Palm 

285 

Tapioca 

228 

Wheat 

288 

Bristly  Crowfoot 

37 

British  Oak 

246,  247 

BromeliacefB    10,  28,  268-270 

Broom  Corn           29 

,  294,  295 

Broom  Pine 

305,  306 

Buckthorn 

16,  87,  88 

Buckwheat 

26,  211 

Bugle-shaped  Cranberry    173 

Bulbous  Crowfoot  35 

Bull  Pepper  193 

Burr  Oak  248,  249 

Bush  Beau  103,  104 

Buttercup  12,  33-38 

Butternut  27,  238,  239 

Butter  Tree  176 

Buxus  27,  225 

sempervirens  225 

var.  angustifolia  225 

var.  suffruticosa  225 


C 


CABBAGE 


47,  48 


Caesalpmia  17,  109 

Braziliensis  109 

Crista  109 

Calisaya  157 

Caltha  12,  39,  40 

leptosepala  40 

palustris  4(» 

Camomile  22,  1()6,  167 

Campanulaceae   8,  22, 170, 171 

Camphor  Tree        27,  217,  218 

Canada  Pumpkin  145 

Canada  Violet  56,  57 

Canna  coccinia  263 

echinus  263 

edulis  263 

flaccida  263 

glauca  263 

Cannabis  sativa      27,  236-238 

Cannon-ball  Tree  137 

Cantaloupe  140-142 

Caoutchouc  27,  223,  224 

Cape  Aloes  278 

Caper  13,  54,  55 

Capparidaceae        6,  13,  54^6 

Capparis  13,  54-56 

ferruginea  55 

soldada  55 

spinosa  54, 55 

Capsella  Bursa-pastoris      13, 

46,47 

Capsicum  24,  192-194 

annuum  102,  193 

fastigiatum  193 

frutescens  193 

grossum  193 

Caraway  156 

Cardamom  28 

Cardinal  Flower  170 

Carob  Tree  17,  108 

Carolina  Anemone  30 

Carolina  Indigofera  96 

Carolina  Watermelon         142 

Carrot  21,  154,  155 

Carthage  Apple  139 

Carthamus  tinctorius         22, 

169,  170 

Carum  21.  155,  150 

Carui  156 

petroselinum  155,  156 

Carya  alba  241 

sulcata  241 

Cashew  Nut  16,  95 

Cassava,  Bitter  227,  228 

Cassia  17.  107,  108 

acutifolia  107,  108 

angustifolia  107,  108 

fistula  107 

Marilandica  107,  108 

obovata  107,  108 


Castanea  27,  243,  244 

pumila  243,  244 

vesca  243,  244 

var.  Americana  243 

Castilloa  elastica  223 

Castor-oil  Plant    27,  228,  229 
Catmint  206,  207 

Catnip  25,  206,  207 

Cauld  Kail  48 

Cauliflower  47 

Cayenne  Pepper  24,  193 

Ceanothus  Americanus  16,  88 
Cedar  29,  310-312 

Celery  21,  146,  147 

Celery-leaved  Crowfoot     37, 
38 
Celery  Parsley  155 

Century-plant  277 

Cephaelis  Ipecacuanha       22, 
162,  163,  223 
Ceratouia  Siliqua  17,  108 

Chamaecyparis       29,  314,  315 
pendula  314 

sempervirens  314 

thyoides  314 

Charlotte  Rothschild  Pine- 
apple 269 
Cheese  Pumpkin         145,  146 
Cheese-shaped  Cranberry  173 
Chenopodiacese  9,  26, 208-210 
Cherry                             18,  118 
Cherry  Currant  128 
Cherry-shaped  Cranberry  173 
Chestnut                27,  243,  244 
Chestnut  Oak              250,  251 
China  Orange  79 
Chinese  Yam         28,  271,  272 
Chrysanthemum  22,  167,  168 
carneum                          167 
cinerariifolium               167 
var.  rotundlfolium        167 
corymbosum                   167 
roseima                            167 
Wilmoti                           167 
Cicuta                                   313 
Cider                                     125 
Cinchona                21,  157-159 
calisaya                           157 
cordlfolia                       157 
lancifolia                         157 
micrantha                       157 
officinalis                        157 
Pitayensis                       157 
succirubra                       157 
Cinchonacese                         96 
Cinnamomiun        27,  217-220 
camphora                217,  218 
cassia                       219, 220 
iners                                220 
obtusifolium                   220 
pauciflorum                    220 
Zeylanicum            219,  220 
Cinnamon                       27,  219 
Citron  83 
Citron  Muskmelon              141 
Citron  Watermelon            142 
CitruUus  vulgaris  20,  142, 143 
Citrus                         15,  78-83 
aurantium                   78-81 
var.  sanguinea                 79 
decumana                   81,  82 
Limetta                      82,  83 
Limonum  82 
Medica                              83 
m3Ttifolius                       81 
vulgaris                           81 


IXDKX. 


341 


Clammy  Rice 

'2(11 

Cleariug  Nut 

Ihl 

Clematis 

IJ,  40-42 

crispa 

4(t 

cyliiidrica 

40 

ocliroleuca 

40 

Pitoheri 

41 

vcrticillaris 

41 

viuriia 

41 

Virginiaiia 

41 

Cloves                     19 

134,  K5;-) 

Cluster  Cucumber 

14(( 

Coca 

15,  7(i 

Coccus  lacca 

'2;5(; 

CoclUearia 

13,  52 

anuoracia 

officinalis 

52 

Cocoa 

14,  70-72 

Cocoanut 

•29 

Cocoauut  Palm 

282,  '283 

Cocos  nucifera      'J'J, 

282,  283 

Coffea                      '-'1 

,  i(;o-it)2 

acuminata 

1(30 

Arabica 

100 

Australia 

IGO 

biflora 

IGO 

Chamissonis 

100 

ciliata 

160 

densitiora 

100 

ludica 

100 

jasminoides 

160 

kaduaua 

lai 

laurina 

160 

Liberica 

160 

longifolia 

160 

magnolifolia 

160 

meridionalis 

160 

Mexicaua 

minor 

Mozambicana 

nitida 

nodosa 

obovata 

occideutalis 

paguiodes 

parvifolia 

pedunculata 

racemosa 

rosea 

semiexserta 

sessilis 

spicata 

stipulacea 

subsessilis 

tetrandra 

Travancoreusis 

truncata 

innbellata 

verticillata 

Wiglitiana 

Zaiiguebarica 
Coffee 
Cold  Chou 
Cold  Slaw 
Colophony 


160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
KiO 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
160 
1(«» 
\m 
160 
16(t 
160 
UiO 
KiO 
160 
21,  160-H;2 
4S 
4.S 
3(»(; 


Coloring  Indigofera  96 

Combretaceu-     7,  19,  131.  132 
Comfrey  23,  182,  18.3 

Common  Bhie  Violet  58 

Common  Cabbage  47 

Common  Camoniili-  166 

Common  FieM  I'linipkin    145 
Common  Fig  234,  235 

Common  Flax  74 

Common  Hop  2.33.  2.34 

Common  Juniper  311 


Common  Marjoram  202 

Common  Myrtle  1.33 

Common  Potato  i:t4 

Common  Red  Currant        128 

Common  Rice  291 

Common  Sage  204 

Common  Sumach  93 

Common  Virgin's  Bower     41 

Compositie  8,  22,  165-170,  21K 

Cone  Family  .3(10-315 

Conifene       5,  11,  29,  :iOO-315 

Coniferous  gymnosperms    11 

Constanthiople  Hazelnut  254 

Convolvulaceae  8,  24, 183-185 

Copper  Beech  255 

Corchorus  14,  73,  74 

capsularis  73 

olitorius  73 

siliquosa  73 

Cordage-producing  Plants  — 

Aloe  278 

Aunatto  64 

Banana  267 

Cocoanut  Palm  283 

Flax  76 

Manilla  268 

New  Zealand  Flax         277 

Sago  Palm  284 

Coriander  21,  152,  153 

Coriandrum  sativum  21,  152, 

153 

Cork  252,  253 

Cork  Tree  252 

Corky  Elm  232 

Corn,  Broom  29,  294,  295 

Indian  29,  286-288 

Corn  Poppy  44 

Corylus  27,  254,  255 

Americana  254 

avellana  254 

colurua  254 

rostrata  2.54 

Cotton  14,  (;s-70 

Cotton  Plant  67-70 

Cow  Cabbage  47 

Cowslip  12,  39.  40 

Cow  Tree  1 76 

Crab  Apple  125 

Cranberry  23,  172-174 

Creeping  Crowfoot  37 

Creeping  Spearwort  36 

Crocus  sativus       28,  270,  271 

Croton  tiglium  27,  22(> 

Croton-oil  Plant  27,  226 

Crowfoot  12,  33-38 

Crowned  Squash  144 

(>iirifpr:r.  6.   13.  46-54 

C  ucumber  '       20.  139,  14(r 

Cucumis  20,  139-142 

melo  140-142 

sativus  1.39,  14o 

Cucurbita  20.  143-146 

maxima  144,  146 

var.  corona  144 

melopepo  143  | 

ovifera  144  i 


var.  meduUosa 
pppo 


144 
145,  146 
verrucosa  143,  144 

Cucurbitacese     6,  20.  139-146 
Cumin  21,  153 

Cuminum  21,  15.3 

(•yminiini  1.53 

s.ilivum  153 

Cujuea  255 

Cupressus  pendula  314 


Cupressus  sempervirens     314 
thyoides  314 

Cupuiifera-  9,  27,  242-256 

Cura<;oa  Orange  81 

Curcuma  longa      28,  2<M),  261 
Curled  Willow  2.57 

Currant  19,  128-131 

Currants,  Zante  89 

Cursed  Crowfoot  37,  38 

Custard  Squash  144 

Cynauchum  olea-folium      108 
Cypress  29,  314,  315 


TJALBERGIA     17,  108,  109 

latifolia  109 

nigra  108,  109 

Damson  Plum  117 

Date  Palm  29,  280,  281 

Daucus  21,  154,  155 

carota  1.54 

var.  sativa  1.54 

Deadly  Nightshade      24.191, 

192 

Delicate  Violet  56 

Dew  of  the  Sea  205,  206 

Dichopsis  gutta     23,  174,  175 

Dicotyledonous  angio- 

sperms  5,  12-27 

Dioscorea  28,  271,  272 

alata  272 

batatas  271,  272 

Japonica  272 

sativa  271,  272 

Dioscoreacea'  10,  28,  271,  272 

Diospyros  23,  176,  177 

ebenum  176,  177 

melanoxylon  176 

Virginiana  176 

Dog  Violet  57 

Downy-leaved  Oak  248 

Downy  Yellow  Violet  60 

Drinks.     See  Beverages. 

Drumhead  Cabbage  47 

Dryobalanops  Camphora   218 

Dwarf  Almond  122 

Dwarf  Curled  Parsley        155 

Dwarf  Tobacco  187 

Dwarf  Whortleberry  171,  172 

Dyer's  Oak  248 

Dye-producing  Plants  — 

Annatto  64 

Black  Oak  248 

Bl.ack  Walnut  240 

Brazil  Wood  109 

Butternut  239 

Cranberry  174 

Overs'  Oak  248 

Gall  Oak  253 

Indigo  97 

Logwood  107 

Madder  164 

Myrobalans  132 

Pomegranate  139 

Saftlower  170 

Saffron  271 

Sumach  95 

Teak  198 

Turmeric  261 

Villon  ia  Oak  254 

Violet  62 

Woad  5;{ 

Yellow-barked  O.ik        248 

Yellow  Berries  88 


342 


INDEX. 


UARLT  Crowfoot       35,  36 

Food  Vegetables  — 

Gooseberry            19,  128-131 

Cabbage 

48 

Gossypium                  14,  67-70 

Early  French  Cucumber    140 

Caraway 

156 

Gossypium  arboreum     67,  68 

Early  Rice                           291 

Carrot 

155 

Barbadense                       67 

Early  Russian  Cucumber   140 

Fennel 

149 

herbaceum                       67 

Ebenaceae          9,  23,  176,  177 

Jute 

74 

Gourd                            143-146 

Ebouy                             23,  176 

Lentil 

101 

Gourd  Squash                       144 

Elecampane            22,  165,  166 

Parsnip 

152 

Graminese         11,  29,  285-300 

Elettaria                 28,  263,  264 

Pea 

103 

Grape  Vine                 16,  88-91 

cardamomura          263,  264 

Potato 

195 

Great-leaved  Tobacco         187 

Elm                          27,  231-233 

Rhubarb 

213 

Great  lobelia                170,  171 

Emetic  Weed                       170 

Rice 

292 

Great-spurred  Violet           61 

English  Cherry                     118 

Spinach 

210 

Green  Pine                   305,  306 

English  Elm                         232 

Sweet  Potato 

184 

Green  Tea                              66 

English  Strawberry             116 

Turnip 

51 

Ground  Nut                    99,  100 

English  Violet                        57 

Yam 

272 

Ground  Pea                    99,  100 

English  Walnut           240,  241 

Four-valved  Tobacco 

187 

Guaiacum                   15,  77,  78 

Enville  Pineapple                2G9 

Fox  Grape 

89 

officinale                     77,  78 

Erythroxylon             15,  70,  77 

Fragaria                  18, 

116,  117 

sanctum                             78 

coca                                     76 

vesca 

116 

Guaiacum  Wood             77,  78 

Eugenia            19,  20,  131-138 

Virginiana 

116 

Guernsey  Parsnip               151 

caryophyllata         134,  135 

Fruits  — 

Gum,  Senegal                      110 

pimenta                   13j,  136 

Achras  sapota 

176 

Turkey                            110 

Euphorbia  Ipecacuanha     27, 

Apple 

125 

Gum  Arabic           18,  111,  112 

163,  222,  223 

Apricot 

120 

Gum  Elastic                        223 

Euphorbiaceae  10,  27,  222-229 

Banana 

267 

Gums,  Resins,  etc.  — 

European  Larch                   310 

Barberry 

42 

Asafcetida                       150 

European  Wine  Grape         89 

Cashew  Nut 

95 

Balsam  Fir                      309 

Cherry 

119 

Cashew  Nut                     95 

Cow  Tree 

176 

Comfrey                           183 

Cranberry 

174 

Gum  Arabic                    112 

pABA  sativa                     104 

Currant 

129 

Gum  Tragacanth             99 

Date  Palm 

281 

Gutta  Percha                 175 

Fagopyrum            26,  211,  212 

Fig 

236 

Hemp                              237 

emarginatum                  211 

Gooseberry 

131 

Larch                              310 

esculentum                     211 

Grape 

90 

Norway  Spruce             308 

Tartaricum                      211 

High  Blackberry 

115 

Oats                                 299 

Fagus                     27,  255,  256 

Huckleberry 

172 

Pitch  Pine                      304 

betuloides               255,  256 

Lemon 

82 

Prosopis  juliflora           112 

colorata                          255 

Muskmelon 

141 

Southern  Pine                300 

ferruginea                      255 

Orange 

80 

Swiss  Pine                      305 

obliqua                            255 

Peach 

122 

Tamarind                        110 

sylvatica                         255 

Pear 

126 

Gum  Tragacanth       17,  98,  99 

Fascicle-rooted  Crowfoot  35, 

Persimmon 

176 

Gun-cotton                              69 

36 

Pineapple 

270 

Gutta  Percha         23,  174,  175 

Fat  Wood                     305,  306 

Plum 

118 

Gymnosperma             5,  11,  29 

Feather  Palms            279,  280 

Pomegranate 

139 

Fennel                    21,  148,  149 

Pumpkin 

145 

Ferula  narthex      21,149-151 

Quince 

127 

Ficus                        27,  234-236 

Raspberry 

114 

TTACKMATAC        309,  310 

Bengalensis                    235 

Red  Mulberry 

231 

Carica                     234,  235 

Shaddock 

82 

Hgematoxylon    Campechia- 

elastica                   223,  235 

Strawberry 

117 

num                     17,  105-107 

Field  Camomile                  166 

Watermelon 

143 

Halberd-leaved  Violet          57 

Field  Pea                              102 

Hamburg  Large-rooted  Pars- 

Field Turnip                    49-61 

ley                                     155 

Fig  Tree                  27,  234-236 

Hand-shaped-leaf  Crowfoot 

Filbert                                   254 

/^ALL  Oak 

253 

38 

Fine  Rosewood            108,  109 

Hand-shaped  Violet             58 

Fir                            29,  308,  309 

Garden  Buttercup 

34 

Haricot                                   103 

Flanders  Spinach                210 

Garden  Carrot 

154 

Hazehiut                 27,  254,  255 

Flat  Dutch  Cabbage             47 

Garden  Pea 

101,  102 

Heartsease                             61 

Flat-leaved  Vanilla             259 

Garden  Poppy 

44 

Hemlock                 29,  312-314 

Flat  Squash                           143 

Garden  Raspberry 

rs 

Hemlock  Spruce         313,  314 

Flat  Turnip                             50 

Garden  Sage 

204 

Hemp                      27,  236-238 

Flax                            15,  74-76 

Gaylussacia           23, 

171,  172 

Henbane                               191 

Flax,  New  Zealand     276,  277 

dumosa 

171,  172 

Hepatica  acutiloba               31 

Flour                              211,  288 

frond osa 

172 

triloba                                31 

Flowering  Plants  5-11,  12-29 

resinosa 

172 

Herb  Cotton                          67 

Foeniculum            21,  148,  149 

Georgia  Pine 

305,  306 

Hevea  Braziliensis       27,  223, 

dulce                               149 

Ginger                    28, 

254,  265 

224,  231 

vulgare                     148,  149 

Glastum 

•      53 

Hickory  Nut          27,  241,  242 

Food  Vegetables - 

Glumiferae 

5 

Hicoria                   27,  241,  242 

Asparagus                        276 

Glumiferous  monocotyled- 

olivaeforinis                    242 

Bean                                105 

onous  angiosperms 

11 

ovata                       241,  242 

Beet                               209 

Glycyrrhiza  glabra 

17,  105 

sulcata                    241,  242 

INDEX. 


343 


Hide-taiminp;  Rhus 

High  Blarkberry 

High  Blueberry 

Hoarhouml 

Holly 

Hooked  Crowfoot 

Hop,  Common       27, 

Hordeum  '-"J 

distichum 

hexastichou 

vulgare 

Zeocriton 
Horse  Radish 
Hubbard  Squash 
Huckleberry  "23, 

Humulus  lupulus  27, 
Hymena'a  combaril 

verrucosa 


94 

114,  11. '> 

172 

'25,  207 

8.')-«7 

37 

233,  234 

2<JG-21tS 

290,  297 

297 

29G,  297 

297 

13,  52 

144 

171,  172 

233,  234 

IIU 

110 


Juniperus  nana  311 

Virginiana  311,312 

var.  forma  cylindrica    31 1 

Jute  73 


ILEX  Paraguayeusis         15, 
85-87 
Ilicinefe  7,  15,  85-87 

lUicium  auisatum  148 

India  Ink  132 

India  Rubber       223,  224,  235 
Indian  Corn  29,  286-288 

Indian  Fig  235 

Indian  Rosewood  109 

Indian  Tobacco     22,  170,  171 
Indigo  17,  90,  97 

ludigofera  17,  9t>,  97 

argentea  90 

Caroliniana  9G,  97 

tinctoria  96 

Indigo  Plant  90 

Inferior  apopetalae  12-21 

Ink-producing  Plants  — 
Banana  207 

Brazil  Wood  109 

Cashew  Nut  95 

Gall  Oak  253 

Myrobalans  132 

Sumach  95 

Inula  Helenium     22,  165,  100 
Ipecac,  Ipecacuanha  22,  103, 
223 
Ipomoea  24,  183-185 

batatas  183,  184 

purga  184,  185 

Iridacese  10,  28,  270,  271 

Irish  Potato  194 

Iron  Oak  249 

Isatis  tinctoria  13,  53 

Ivy,  Poison  93 


JAPAN  Quince 

127 

Jatropha  manihot 

227,  228 

Jesuits'  Bark 

l.'')7 

Juglandaceae      9,  27 

238-242 

Juglans                    27 

238-241 

cinerea 

238,  239 

nigra 

2.T.I,  240 

regia 

240,  241 

var.  maxima 

240 

var.  serotina 

240 

var.  tenera 

240 

Juniper 

310-312 

Juniperus                  29 

310-312 

Btrnuidlana 

311 

conimunis 

311 

var.  alpina 

311 

var.  prostrata 

311 

var.  pyramidalis 

311 

K 


IDNEY  Bean 


103 


Kittatinny   Blackberry      115 

LABIATE      8,  24,  25,  198- 
207 
Lance-leaved  Violet  57 

Larch  29,  309,  3lo 

Large-fruited  Cranberry  172, 
173 
Large  Prickly  Spinach  210 
Large-ribbed  Muskmelon  141 
Large-rooted  Beet  208 

Larix  29,  309,  310 

Europea  310 

laricina  309,  310 

Lauraceie  9,  26,  27,  217-220 
Lavandula  25,  198,  199 

spica  198 

var,  alba  198 

var.  latifolia  198 

stoechas  198 

vera  198 

Lavender  25,  198 

Lawton  Blackberry  115 

Leather  240,  248, 251,  310,  314 
Leather  Back  145 

Leather  Flower  41 

Leguminosie  7,  16-18,  90-112 
Lemon  15,  82 

Lens  17,  100,  101 

esculeuta  KX) 

var.  lutea  100 

var.  Provence  100 

Lentil  17,  100,  101 

Lettuce-leaved  Spinach  210 
Lignum- vitic  15,  77,  78 

LiUaceiB  10,  28,  272-278 

Lima  Bean  103,  104 

Lime  82,  83 

Lime  Juice  83 

Linace;e  G,  15,  74-77 

Linseed  Oil  70 

Liuum  15,  74-70 

angustifolium  75 

usitatissimum  74 

Virginianum  75 

Liquorice  17,  105 

Live  Oak  2.52 

Lobelia  22,  170,  171 

cardinalis  170,  171 

inflata  170,  171 

syphilitica  170,  171 

LoganiaceiB  9,  23,  180-182 
Logwood  17,  105-107 

Long  Beet  208,  209 

Long-fruited  Anemone  .30 
Long-leaved  Pine  305,  .300 
Long-leaved  P«ippy  44 

Long-necked  Scpiash  143,  144 
Long-spurred  Violet  00 

Lycopersicum    escjilentJira 

24,  1S5,  18G 
LythraceaB         7,  20,  138,  139 


M 


ACE 


210 


M.idder  22,  10.3.  10  J 

Magnoliace»  148 


.Mahogany  15,  83,  84 

Maize  28G-288 

Malvaceae  6,  14,  67-70 

Mandarin  Orange  81 

Mandragora  officinalis         43 
offlcinarum  191 

Mandrake  13,  42,  43 

Manihot  27,  227,  228 

api  227,  228 

utilissima  227,  228 

Manilla  28,  2G7,  208 

Many-cleft  Anemone      31,  32 
Maple  IG,  91-93 

Maple,  Sugar  294 

Maple  Sugar  92 

Maranta  aruudinacea  28, 

2G1-2G3 
Marjoram  25,  20'J 

Marrubium  \-ulgare      25,  207 
Marsdenia  tinctoria  9G 

Marsh  Marigold        12,  39,  40 
Marsh  Violet  59 

May  Apple  13,  42,  43 

Meadow  Rue  12,  39 

Meadow  Violet  59 

Meconium  45 

Medicinal  Plants  — 

Allspice  136 

Aloe  278 

Anise  148 

Annatto  64 

Asafoetida  151 

Asparagus  276 

Balsam  Fir  309 

Barberry  42 

Betel  Nut  280 

Betel  Pepper  214 

Bind-weed  Jalap  185 

Black  Pepper  215 

Blue  Cardinal  Flower  171 
Box  225 

Butternut  239 

Camomile  IGG,  107 

Camphor  Tree  218 

Caper  56 

Caraway  156 

Cardamom  263 

Cashew  Nut  95 

Cassia  220 

Castor-oil  Plant  229 

Catnip  207 

Celery  147 

Cinchona  Bark  159 

Cinnamon  219 

Cloves  135 

Coca  77 

Comfrey  183 

Common  Hop  234 

Conunon  Juniper  312 

Common  Sumach  95 

Coriander  152,  153 

Cotttm  70 

Croton-oil  Pl.int  226 

Cumin  153 

F.lecampane  lt»6 

Emetic  Weed  171 

Fennel  149 

Fig  236 

Flax  76 

Ginger  265 

Great  Lobelia  171 

Gum  Arabic  112 

Gum  Tragacanth  99 

Henbane  192 

High  Blackherrv  115 

Hoarhound  207 


344 


INDEX. 


Medicinal  Plants  — 

Horse  Radish 

52 

Indian  Tobacco 

171 

Ipecac 

163 

Jute 

74 

Larch 

310 

Lavender 

199 

Lignum-vitae 

78  ! 

Liquorice 

105 

Logwood 

lOG 

Mace 

216,  217  1 

Madder 

164 

Mahogany 

85 

Mandrake 

43 

Marjoram 

202 

Mustard 

49 

Mjrrobalans 

132 

Myrtle 

134 

Nutmeg 

216,  217  1 

Parsley 

156 

Pennyroyal 

201  ^ 

Pepper 

193 

Peppermint 

201 

Pomegranate 

139 

Poppy 

45,46 

Quince 

127 

Rhubarb 

213 

Safflower 

170 

Sage 

204 

Sandal-wood  Tree          222 

Sarsaparilla 

273 

Sharp-lobed  Hepatica     33 

Slippery  Elm 

233 

Southern  Pines 

306 

Spearmint 

201 

Strawberry 

117 

Strychnine 

182 

Tamarind 

110 

Tansy 

169 

Tapioca 

228 

Thyme 

203 

Turmeric 

261 

Vanilla 

260 

Violet 

62 

Mediterranean  Wheat        288 

Meliaceae 

7,  15,  83-85 

Melon 

142,  143 

Mentha 

25,199-201 

piperita 

200 

var.  subhirsuta 

200 

pulegium 

201 

viridis 

199,  200 

Metroxylon 

29,  283-285 

Isevis 

284 

sagu 
spinosa 

284,285 

284 

Milk  Vetch 

97-99 

Millet 

29,  300 

Mimusops  elata 

176 

Much-divided-leaved  Crow- 


foot 

Mulberry 

Musa 

paradisiaca 
sapientum 
textilis 
violacea 

Muskmelon 

Mustard 


36 

27,  230,  231 

28,  265-268 

265 

265,  266,  267 

267,  268 

267 

20, 140-142 

13,  46-51 


Nux  Avellana 
Pontica 
Vomica 


O 


AK 


255 
23,  180,  181 


27,  245-254 


Myatt's  Triple-curled  Pars- 
ley 
Myristica 

fatua 

fragrans 

spuria 
Myristicaceae 
Myrobalans 
Myrtacese      ' 
Myrteae 
Myrtle 
Myrtus 

communis 

var.  Belgica 

var.  Boeotica 

var.  mucronata 

var.  Romana 

var.  Tarentiua 


155 

26,  215-217 

216 

216 

216 

9,  26,  215-217 

19,  131 

19,  20,  132-137 

132-137 

19,  133,  134 

19,  133,  134  1 

133  ' 


Oak  of  the  Barrens  249 

Oats  29,  298,  299 

Oblique-leaved  Beech  255 
Oblong-leaved  Crowfoot  36 
Odell's  Large  Watermelon  142 


Oil  of  Tar 
Oil-producing  Plants 
Allspice 


N 


APA-BRASSICA 


133 
133 
133 
133 
133 


50 


Mitchell's  Matchless  Parsley 

155 
Monkey  Nut  99,  100 

Monocotyledonous  angio- 

sperms 
MoreUo  Cherry 
Morus  2' 

alba 

var.  multicaulis 
rubra 
Moss-cup  Oak 
Mossy-cup  White  Oak  248, 

249 

Mountain  Rice  291 

Mountain  Sumach  93 

Moxintain  Sweet  Watermelon 

142 


28,29 
118 
230,  231 
230,  231 
231 
230,  231 
248,  249 


Naples  Parsley  155 

Narrow-leaved  Flax  75 

Nasturtium  13,  53,  54 

officinale  53,  54 

Nectarine  121 

Nepeta  cataria       25,  206,  207 

Nerium  tinctorium  96 

Nettle  Family  230-238 

New  England  Pine  302 

New  Jersey  Tea  16,  88 

New  Rochelle  Blackberry  115 

New  Zealand  Flax  28,  276, 

277 

Nicotiana  24,  187-191 

macrophylla  187 

nana  187 

Persica  187 

quadrivalvis  187 

re panda  187 

rustica  187 

tabacura  187 

Norway  Spruce  308 

Nut-gall  253 

Nutmeg  26,  216 

Nutmeg  Muskmelon  141 

Nuts  — 

Almond  123 

Beech-nut  256 

Black  Wahlut  240 

Brazil  Nut  137 

Butternut  239 

Cashew  Nut  95 

Chestnut  244 

English  Walnut  240,  241 

Hazelnut  255 

Hickory  Nut  241,  242 

Peanut  100 

Pecan  Nut  242 

Pine  Nut  301  ^ 

Shag-bark  241, 242 

SheU-bark  241,  242 

Thick  Shell-bark  241,  24-. 
Walnut 
White  Walnut 


Asafoetida 

Beech 

Black  Walnut 

Brazil  Nut 

Butternut 

Butter  Tree 

Camomile 

Camphor  Tree 

Caraway 

Cardamom 

Castor-oil  Plant 

Cinnamon 

Cloves 

Cocoanut  Palm 

Coriander 

Cotton 

Croton-oil  Plant 

Cumin 

English  Walnut 

Fennel 

Flax 

Hemp 

Lavender 

Lime 

Mace 

Marjoram 

Mustard 

Nutmeg 

Oats 

Olive 

Orange 

Peanut 

Pennyroyal 

Peppermint 

Poppy 

Rape 

Rosemary 

Saffron 

Sandal-wood  Tree 


306 

136 
148 
150 
256 
239 
137 
238 
176 
167 
218 
156 
263 
229 
219 
135 
283 
152 
69 
226 
153 
240,  241 
149 
76 
237 
199 
83 
217 
203 
49 
217 
299 
180 
81 
100 
201 
201 


51 

206 

271 
222 
197 
41,  242 
242 
306 


241 


Shag-bark 

SheU-bark 

Southern  Pine 

Tansy  169 

Teak  198 

Thick  Shell-bark  242 

Thyme  203 

Oils        81,  149,  153,  156,  169, 

179,180,199,201,222,306 

Oil  Seed  195-197 

Olea  23,  178-180 


240-242    Oleaceae 
241,  242  !  Olive 


Europeae 
var.  buxifolia 
var.  ferruginea 
var.  latifolia 
var.  longifolia 
var.  obliqua 
var.  sylvestris 
9, 


178 
178 
178 
178 
178 
178 
178 
3,  178-180 
3,  178-180 


INDEX. 


345 


Opium  45,  4G 

Opium  Poppy  44 

Orange  lu 

Orange,  Sweet  78-81 
Orange  Gourd-Squash         144 

Orchidaceae       10,  '2S,  '258-'Jt;() 
Origanum                 '25, '2U1-Ji;5 

marjoraua  -O-i 

vulgare  -O'J 
t^rnaniental  Plants  — 

Acacia  llli 
American  Arbor  Vitas   312 

American  Beech  '250 

American  Elm  -'S'-i 

Anemone  32,  33 

Austrian  Pine  301 

Barberry  42 

Beech  of  Europe  25(; 

Black  Spruce  307 

Box  225 

Castor-oil  Plant  22!» 

Clematis  42 

Clove  Tree  135 

Common  Juniper  311 

English  Elm  233 

Hemlock  Spruce  313 

Japan  Quince  127 

Larch  310 

Logwood  107 

Marjoram  203 

Moss-cup  Oak  249 

Myrtle  134 

Norway  Spruce  308 

Pin  Oak  250 

Pomegranate  139 

Poppy  44 

Ranunculus  38 

Red  Cedar  312 

Red  Oak  261 

Rosemary  200 

Sage  204 

Scarlet  Oak  248 

Scotch  Pine  304 

Shaddock  82 

Spanish  Oak  248 

Swiss  Pine  305 

Thyme  203 

Violet  (;2 

Weeping  Willow  258 

White  Pine  302 

White  Spruce  308 

Willow-leaved  Oak  250 

Yellow  Pine  303 
Orjza                      29,290,291 

coarctata  291 

glutinosa  291 

mutica  291 

prx'cox  291 

sativa  291 

Osier  28 

Osier  Willow  258 

Ox  Heart  118 
Oxycoccus               23,  172-174 
macrocarpus           172,  173 

palustris  173 


)ALE  Violet 


01 


Palm,  Cocoanut      282,  283 

Date  29,  280,  281 

Sago  29,  284,  285 

Palmae  lo,  20,  278-285 

Palms,  Feather  279,  280,  281, 

282,  283.  284,  285 

Pway  61 


Papaver  13,  43-40 

dubium  44 

orientale  44 

Rhoeas  44 

uomniferum  44 

Papaveraceae  0,  13,  43-10 

Paper  74,  208 

Para  Sarsaparilla  273 

Paraguay  Tea  15,  85-87 

Parsley  21,  155,  15t; 

Parsnip  21,  151,  152 

Pasque-flower  32 

Pastinaca  sativa  151,152 

Pea  17,  101-103 

Pea,  Ground  99,  100 

Peach  18,  121,  122 

Peach,  Wolf  186 

Peanut  17,  99,  100 

Pear  19,  123-127 

Pear-shaped  Cranberry      173 
Pear  Tree  125,  120 

Pearl  Sago  285 

Pecan  Nut  27,  242 

Pedaline*  8,  24,  195-197 

Pekoe  00 

Pencil  Cedar  311 

Pennsylvaniau  Anemone    30, 
31 
Pennsylvaniau  Crowfoot      37 
Pennyroyal  25,  201 

Pepper,  Bell  193 

Betel  214 

Black  214,  215 

Cayenne  193 

Red  192,  193 

Peppermint  200 

Perfume-produciug  Plants  — 
Butter  Tree  17G 

Hemp  237 

Lavender  199 

Mace  217 

Rosemary  200 

Sandal-wood  Tree  222 

Perry  127 

Persian  Berries  87,  88 

Persimmon  23,  170 

Peruvian  Bark  21,  157 

Petaloide*  5 

Petaloideous  mouocotyled- 

onous  angiosperms  10 

Peucedanum  21,  151,  152 

pastinaca  151,  152 

Phaenogams  5-11,  12  29 

Phase,  lus  17,103-105 

lunatus  103,  104 

vulgaris  103 

var.  nanus  103,  1()4 

Phoenix  dactylifera     29,  280, 

281 

Phormium  tenax  28,  276,  277 

Picea  29,  307,  30S 

alba  307,  ;5<iS 

balsamifera  309 

excelsa  308 

nigra  307  : 

Pimpinella  anisum      21,  147, 

148  ' 
Pine  29,  300-306  | 

Pineapple  28,  2r>9,  270 

Pin  Oak  249,  250 

Pinus  29,  300-306  ' 

Austriaca  301  | 

balsamifera  309 

Canadensis  bifolia  ;5(H 

cembra  305  j 

var.  pygmsea  306  | 


PinuH cembra, var  Siberica305 

mitis  302, 303 

monophylla  301 

nigra  301 

palustris  305,  306 

var.  excelsa  305 

resinosa  304 

rigida  304 

rubra  304 

strobus  302 

sylvestris  303,  »>4 

variabilis  302,  ;j03 

Piper  26,  214,  215 

betel  -JH 

Piper  nigrum  214,  215 

var.  longum  214 

Piperaceae  9,  20,  213-215 

Pisum  17,  101-103 

arvense  102 

sativum  101,  102 

Pitch  30G 

Pitch  Pine  304,  305,  3(J6 

Plantain  2<>5 

Plum  18,117-123 

Plum,  Damson  117,  118 

Podophyllum  peltatum       13, 

42,  43 

Poison  Ivy  93 

Poison  Oak  93 

Poisonous  Plants  — 

Aloe  278 

Box  225 

Camphor  218 

Chrysanthemum    167,  168 

Hemlock  313 

Poison  Ivy  95 

Poison  Oak  95 

Poison  Sumach  95 

Red  Cedar  312 

Strychnine  182 

Tapioca  228 

White  Cedar  315 

Poison  Sumach  95 

Pole  Beau  103 

Polygala  tiuctoria  96 

Polygalaceae  96 

Polygonaceae      9,  26,  210-213 

Polygonum  aviculare  9(» 

barbatum  96 

Chinense  96 

fagopyrum  21 1 

P|erfoliatum  9<; 

tinctorium  96 

Pomegranate  20,  138 

Pomum  Puuicum  139 

Poppy  13,  43-K; 

Post  Oak  24'.) 

Potato  24,  194 

Potato,  Sweet        24,  18;^,  184 

Prickly  Cayenne  Pineapple 

269 

Prickly-seeded  Crowfoot     3<; 

Primrose-leaved  Violet        60 

Providence  Pineapple         269 

Prunus  18,  19,  117-12,3 

Armeuiaca  120 

avium  118 

cerasus  118 

commiuus  122 

var.  amara  122 

domestica  117 

nana  122 

Persioa  121,  122 

var.  brvis  121 

Pumpkin  20,  143-14<. 

Pumpkin  Pine  302 


846 


INDEX. 


Punica  20,  138,  139 

granatum  138 

var.  alba  138 

var.  plena  138 

Puuy  Crowfoot  37 

Puritan  Squash  144 

Purple  Cabbage  47 

Purple  Sweet  Violet  57 

Purplish  Meadow  Rue  39 

Pyrus  19,  123-127 

communis  125-127 

Cydonia  127 

Japonica  127 

mains  123-125 


QUERCUS  27,  245-254 

SEgUops  253,  254 

var.  latifolia  253 

var.  peudula  253 

alba  245 

var.  pinnatifida  245 

var.  repauda  245 

bicolor  247 

coccinea  247,  248 

var.  tinctoria  248 

falcata  248 

Ilex  8G 

infectoria  253 

macrocarpa  248,  249 

nigra  249 

obtusiloba  249 

palustris  249,  250 

pedunculata  246,  247 

Phellos  250 

var.  latifolius  250 

var.  sylvatica  250 

Prinus  250 

var.  acuminata  250,  251 

var.  monticola  251 

pseudococcifera  245 

robur  246,  247 

var.  fastigiata  246 
var.  foliis  variegatis      246 

var.  heterophylla  246 

var.  pendula  246 

var.  pubescens  246 

var.  purpurea  246 

var.  sessiliflora  246 

rubra  250,  251 

var.  runcinata  251 

suber  252 

var.  angustifolium  252 

var.  dentatum  252 

var.  latifolia  252 

virens  252 

Quince  19,  127 

Quince,  Japan  127 


R 


ANDIA  aculeata 


96 


Ranunculaceae  6,  12, 30-42 

Ranunculus  12,  33-38 

abortivus  33,  34 

var.  micranthus  34 

acris  34 

alismaefolius  34 

ambigens  34 

aquatilis  35 

var.  tricophyllus  35 

bulbosus  35 

Cymbalaria  35 

fascicularis  35,  36 

flammula  36 


Ranunculus  flammula,  var. 

intermedins  36 

var.  reptans  36 

micranthus  34 

multitidus  36 

var.  terrestris  36 

muricatus  36 

oblongifolius  36 

palmatus  38 

parviflorus  36 

Pennsylvanicus  37 

pusillus  37 

recurvatus  37 

repens  37 

rhomboideus  37 

sceleratus  37,  38 

septentrionalis  38 

Rape  51 

Raspberry  18,  113,  114 

Red  Banana  265,  266 

Red  Cabbage  47 

Red  Cedar  311 

Red  Cherry  118 

Red  Cinchona  Bark  157 

Red  Dutch  Currant  128 

Red  Elm  232 

Red  Grape  Currant  128 

Red  Mulberry  230,  231 

Red  Oak  251 

Red  Pepper  24,  192,  193 

Red  Pine  3U4, 305,  306 

Red  Raspberry  88 

Red  Root  88 

Red  Top  Turnip  50 

Red  Wheat  288 

Revalenta  101 

Rhamnacese  16,  87,  88 

Rhamnus  16,  87,  88 

chlorophorus  87 

infectorius  87,  88 

utilis  87 

Rheum  26,  212,  213 

compactum  212 

pabnatum  212 

rhaponticum  212 

undulatum  212 

Rhomboid-leaved  Crowfoot  37 

Rhubarb  26,  212,  213 

Rhus  16,  93-95 

copallina  93 

coriaria  94 

Cotinus  93,  94 

glabra  93,  94,  95 

Toxicodendron  93,  95 

typhina  93 

venenata  93,  95 

Ribes  19,  128-131 

cynosbate  129,  130 

floridum  128 

Grossularia  129 

hirtellum  130 

nigrum  129 

oxyacanthoides  130 

rotundifolium  130 

rubriun  128 

Rice  29,  290,  291 

Ricinus  27,  228,  229 

communis  228,  229 

Ring-leaved  Willow  257 

Rio  Negro  Sarsaparilla       273 

Ripley  Pineapple  269 

Rock  Chestnut  Oak  251 

Rock  Maple  91 

Rock  Oak  251 

Roman  Camomile  166 

Rosacese        7,  18,  19, 113-127 


Rosemary  25,  205,  206 

Rosewood  17,  108, 109 

Rosin  306 

Rosmarinus  25,  205,  206 

officinalis  205 

var.  variegata  205 

Roimd-leaved  Violet  60 

Round-lobed  Hepatica         31 

Rubia  22,  163,  164 

Chiliensis  164 

cordifolia  164 

tinctorum  163,  164 

Rubiaceae    9,  21,  22,  157-164, 

223 

Rubus  18,  113-115 

fruticosus  115 

Idaeus  113 

occidentalis  113 

strigosus  88,  113,  114 

vUlosus  114, 115 

var.  frondosus  115 

var.  humifusus  115 

Rue  Anemone  12,  33 

Russia  Turnip  50 

Russian  Rhubarb  213 

Rutabaga  50 

Rutaceae  7,  15,  78-83 

Rye  29,  295,  296 


QACCHARUM     29,  292-294 

atrorubens  293 

contractum  293 

dubium  293 

fragile  293 

officinarum  292,  293 

polystachyum  293 

rubicundum  293 

Sacred  Barley  297 

Saflflower  22,  169,  170 

Saffron    28,  169,  170,  270,  271 

Sage  25,  204 

Sago,  Pearl  285 

Sago  Palm  29,  284,  285 

Salads  — 

Beet  209 

Cabbage  48 

Caper  56 

Celery  147 

Cowslip  40 

Cucumber  140 

Fennel  149 

Ranunculus  ficaria  38 

Tomato  186 

Water-Cress  54 

Salicacea?  9,  28,  256-258 

Salix  28,  256-258 

annularis  257 

Babylonica  256 

var.  crispar  257 

var.  Napoleona  257 

var.  vulgaris  256,  257 

viminalis  258 

Salvia  25,  204 

officinalis  204 

var.  variegata  204 

pomifera  204 

Sandal-wood  Tree  27,  220-222 

SantalaceiB         9,  27,  220-222 

Santalum  27,  220-222 

album  220,  221 

Freycinetianum  221 

niyrtifolium  221 

yasi  221 

Sapiadaceae  7,  16,  91-93 


INDEX. 


347 


8apotarpnf»  0,  23,  174-176 

SapliiiR  Pine  302 

Sarasiu  Wheat  211 

Sarsaparilla  28,  273,  274 

Savoy  Cabbage  47 

Saxifragacea>      7,  ll»,  12M-131 
Scarlet  Oak  247,  248 

Scotch  Fir  303,  3()4 

Scotch  Phie  303,  304 

Scurvy  Grass  52 

Sea  Island  Cotton  07 

Seaside  Crowfoot  35 

Secale  cereale        29,  2t»5,  2% 
Secor's  Maiumotli  Black- 
berry 115 
Senna                       17, 107,  108 
Sesame                           24,  I'JC. 
Sesamum                24,  195-107 
Indicuiu                            190 
orientale                          190 
Setaria                             29,  300 
Italica                             m) 
var.  Germauica              30tt 
Seville  Orange                 79,  81 
Shaddock                         81,  82 
Shag- bark                             241 
Sharp-lobed  Hepatica  31 
Sliell-bark                            241 
Shepherd's  Purse      13,  40,  47 
Sickle-leaved  Oak                248 
Silk                                       231 
Silver-leaved  Iiidigofera      90 
Silver-leaved  Oak                247 
Single-leaved  Nut-pine       301 
Six-rowed  Barley                297 
Slippery  Elm                         232 
Small  Cranberry                  17.5 
Small-flowered  Anemone     32 
Small-flowered  Crowfoot    33, 
34,30 
Smaller  Spearwort                30 
Suiilax                    28,  273,  274 
medica                             273 
officinalis                273,  274 
papyracefB              273,  274 
Sarsaparilla            273,  274 
Smoke  Tree                            93 
Smooth  Cayenne  Pineapple 

209 

Smooth  Sumach  93 

Snake-wood  181 

Socotrine  Aloes  278 

Solanaceae  8,  24,  185-195 

Solanum  24,  194,  195 

Commersonii  194 

immite  194 

tuberosum  194 

verrucosum  194 

Sorghum  saccharatum        29, 

294,  295 

Sour  Clierry  118 

Southern  Pine  305,  300 

Spadiciflora-  5 

Spadicirtorous  monoi'otyled- 

onous  angiosperms  10 

Spanish  Oak  248 

Sparrow  Grass  274-270 

Spearmint  25,  199,  200  I 

Spearwort  34,  36  | 

Spires,  Condiments,  etc.  —      1 
Allspice  130  ' 

Anise  148  ] 

Asafa'tida  151  , 

Black  Pepper  215 

Caper  50  i 

1K«  I 


Spices,  Condiments,  etc.  — 
Cardamom  203,  204 


Cassia 

220 

Cinnamom 

219 

Cloves 

135 

Coriander 

152 

Cumin 

153 

Femiel 

149 

Ginger 

2(;5 

Horse  Radish 

52 

Mace 

210,  217 

Mustard 

49 

Nutmeg 

210,  217 

Parsley 

150 

Pepper 

194 

Sage 

204 

Spearmint 

201 

Thyme 

203 

Vanilla 

200 

Spicy  Vanilla 

259 

Spinach,  Spinage  20,  209,  210 
Spinacia  oleracea  20,  209,  210 
Spotted  Violet  58 

Spruce  29,  307,  308 

Spruce,  Hemlock  313,  314 
Spruce  Pine  302,  303 

Spurge  27,  222,  223 

Spurge  Family  222-229 

Squash  20,  143-140 

Stag-horn  Sumach  93 

Staining  Buckthorn  87,  88 
Star  Anise  148 

Sterculiace*  7,  14,  70-72 

Stone  Pine  305 

Strap-leaved  Turnip  50 


Strawberry 
Streaked  Violet 
String  Bean 
Striped  Violet 
Stryclmos 

colubrina 

Ignatii 

uux  vomica 

potatorum 

tieute 

toxifera 
Student  Parsnip 
Sugar  Cane  2i 

Sugar  Loaf  Cabbage 
Sugar  Maple 


18,  110,  117 

58 

103 

01 

23,  180-182 

181 

181 

180,  181 

181 

181 

181 

151 

29,  292-294 

47 

91,  294 


Caraway 


156 


Sugar-producing  Plants  — 
Beet  209 

Broom  Corn  295 

Cocoanut  Palm  283 

Oats  299 

Sugar  Cane  294 

Sugar  Maple  92 

Sugar  Pumpkin  145,  140 

Sugar  Tree  91 

Sumach  10,  93-95 

Summer  Wheat  288 

Swamp  Chestnut  O.ik  250 
Swamp  Spanisli  Oak  249,  250 
Swamp  Wliite  Oak  247 

Swedish  Turnip  50 

Sweet  Marjoram  202 

Sweet  Orange  78-81 

Sweet  Potato  24,  183,  1S4 

Sweet  Potato  Squiislj  144 

Sweet  Tliyme  2.'>.  203 

Sweet  Violet  57 

Swiet«nia  mahogani  15,  S3-85 
Swiss  Pine  305 

Sympetal.T  5.  21-27 

Sympetalous     dicotyledo- 
nous   angiosperms  8, 9 


Symi)hytum  23,  182,  183 

officinale  182,  183 

var.  Bohemicum  182 


''pACCA  iutegrifolia         262 

Tall  Meadow  Rue  39 

Tamarack  309,  310 

Tamarind  IS,  109-111 

Tamarindus  Indica     is,  109- 

111 

Tanacetum  vulgare     22,  108, 

169 

Tangleberry  172 

Tannin-producing  Plants  — 

Allspice  136 

Black  Jack  Oak  249 

Black  Oak  248 

Chestnut  Oak  251 

Dyers'  Oak  248 

Gall  Oak  253 

Gum  Arabic  112 

Hemlock  Spruce  314 

Larch  310 

Moss-cup  Oak  249 

Myrobalans  132 

Myrtle  134 

Pin  Oak  250 

Pomegranate  139 

Red  Oak  252 

Rock  Oak  251 

Scarlet  Oak  248 

Silver-leaved  Oak  247 

Spanish  Oak  248 

Sumach  94 

Valonia  Oak  254 

White  Oak  240 

Willow-leaved  Oak        250 

Yellow-barked  Oak       248 

Tansy  22,  108,  109 

Tapioca  27,  227,  228 

Tar  304,  306 

Tea  14,  04-07 

Tea,  New  Jersey  10,  88 

Paraguay  15,  85-87 

Teak  24,  197,  198 

Tectoua  grandis    24,  197,  198 

Teplirosia  apoUinea  96 

tinctoria  96 

toxicaria  96 

Terminalia  19,  131,  132 

augustifolia  132 

bellerica  132 

catappa  132 

chebula  131 

citrina  132 

Temstnvmiaceap   7,  14,  64-67 

Textile  Fabrics 

Cocoanut  Palm  283 

Common  Hop  234 

Cotton  69 

Flax  76 

Hemp  237 

Jute  74 

Manilla  268 

New  Zealand  Flax         277 
Thalictrum  12,  39 

anemonoides  33 

clavatum  39 

Coruuti  39 

dioicum  39 

polygamum  39 

purpurascens  39 

var.  ceriferum  39 


348 


INDEX. 


Thea 

14,  64-67 

Bohea 

64 

viiidis 

64 

Thebaicum 

45 

Theobroma 

14,  70-72 

angustifolia 

71 

bicolor 

71 

cocoa 

70,71 

Guianensis 

71 

microcarpa 

71 

ovatifolia 

71 

sylvestris 

71 

Thick  Shell-bark 

241 

Thimble  Berry 

113 

Thimble  Weed  32,  33 

Thuja  occidentalis        29,  312 
Thunderbolt  Flower  196 

Thyme  203 

Thymeleacete  278 

Thymus  25,  203 

serpyllum  203 

vulgaris  203 

Tiliacese  7,  14,  72-74 

Tinnevelly  Senna  108 

Tobacco  24,  187-191 

Tobacco,  Indian    22,  170,  171 
Tomato  24,  186 

Trachylobium  Horneman- 

nianum  110 

Tree  Cabbage  47 

Tree  Cotton  ■  67,  68 

Triticum  29,  288-290 

sestivum  288 

compositum  289 

hybernum  288 

vulgare  288,  289 

var.  sestivum  288 

var.  album  288 

var.  hybernum  288 

var.  nudum  288 

var.  rubrum  288 

Tropaeolum  54 

Tsuga  Canadensis  29,  312-314 

Turkey  Rhubarb  213 

Turmeric  28,  200,  261 

Turnip  13,  46-51 

Turnip-rooted  Beet  208 

Turpentine  304,  306 

Turpentine,  Spirits  of        306 

Venice  310 


U 


LMUS 


alata 

Americana 
campestris 
fulva 


27,  231-233 

232 

231,  232,  233 

232,  233 

232 


racemosa  232 

Umbellifera^  6, 20,  21, 146-156 
Upland  White  Oak  249 

Urticaceae  10, 27,  223,  230-238 


VACCINIACE^  8,  23, 

'  171-174 

Vaccinium  macrocarpum  172, 

17;! 

oxycoccus  173 

Valonia  Oak  253,  254 

Valparaiso  Squashes  141 

Vanilla  28,  259,  2(;o 

aromatica  259 

planifolia  259 

Van-Mais  38 

Vegetable  Marrow  144 


Venetian  Sumach  93,  94 

Venice  Turpentine  310 

Verbenacese       9,  24,  197,  198 

Versailles  Currant  128 

Vicia  faba  104 

Vine,  Grape  88-91 

Vinegar  283 

Viola  14,  56-62 

blanda  56,  60 

Canadensis  56,  57 

canina  57 

var.  sylvestris  57 

cordata  59  j 

cucullata  58,  59  I 

var.  cordata  59  i 

var.  reniformis  59  j 

var.  striata  58  \ 

hastata  57  I 

lanceolata  57,  60 

Muhlenbergii  57 

odorata  57 

palmata  58 

palustris  59 

pedata  58,  59,  60 

var.  bicolor  60 

primulsefolia  60 

pubescens  60 

var.  scabriuscula  60 

rostrata  60 

rotundifolia  60 

sagittata  60,  61 

var.  ovata  61 

Selkirkii  61 

sorosis  59 

striata  61 

tenella  61,  62 

tricolor  61,  62 

var.  arvensis  61,  62 

villosa  59 

Violaceae  6,  14,  56-62 

Violet  14,  .56-62 

Virginian  Anemone  32,  33 

Virgin's  Bower  12,  40-42 

Vitis  16,  88-91 

labrusca  89 

vinifera  89 


"ly^I^^UT 


239-241 


Warty  Squash  143,  144 

Water  Cress  13,  53,  54 

Watermelon  20,  142,  143 

Water  Oak  249,  250 

Water  Plantain  34 

Wattle  Barks  112 

Wavy  Tobacco  187 

Way-adorner  41 

Wayside  Crowfoot  34 

Weeping  Elm  231,  232 

Weeping  Willow  250  I 

Weymouth  Pine  302 

Wheat  29,  288,  289 

Wheat,  Sarasin  211 
Whiskey       288,  296,  298,  299 

White  Cabbage  47 

White  Cedar  314 
White  Dutch  Currant         128  ! 

White  Elm  231,  232 

White  Mulberry  230,  231 

White  Mustard  48,  49 

White  Oak  245 

White  Pine  302 

White  Potato  194 
White  Spine  Cucumber      140 

White  Spruce  307,  308 


White  Stone  Turnip  50 

White  Sweet  Violet  57 

White  Walnut  241 
White  Water  Crowfoot        35 

White  Wheat  288 
Whorled-leaved  Virgin's 

Bower  41 

Wicked  Crowfoot  37,  38 

Wild  Carrot  154 

Wild  Flax  75 

Wild  Gooseberry  129,  130 
Wild  Red  Raspberry  113, 114 
Willow                    28,  256-258 

Willow-leaved  Oak  250 
Windflower  12,  30-33 
Wine               90,  129,  267,  283 

Winged  Elm  232 

Winter  Squash  144 

Winter  Wheat  288 

Woad  13,  53 

Wolf  Peach  186 

Wood  Anemone  32 

Wood  Crowfoot  37 
Woods  — 

American  Arbor  Vitae  312 
Apple  125 
Austrian  Pine  301 
Beech  256 
Black  Jack  Oak  249 
Black  Oak  248 
Black  Spruce  307 
Black  Walnut  239,  240 
Box  225 
Brazil  Wood  109 
British  Oak  247 
Butternut  239 
Cherry  118 
Chestnut  244 
Chestnut  Oak  251 
Cloves  135 
Cocoanut  Palm  283 
Constantinople  Hazel- 
nut 255 
Cork  Tree  252 
Dyers'  Oak  248 
Ebony  176 
English  Elm  233 
English  Wahiut  241 
Hemlock  Spruce  313,314 
Larch  310 
Ligiuim-vitae  78 
Live  Oak  252 
Logwood  107 
Mahogany  85 
Moss-cup  Oak  249 
Myrobalans  132 
Norway  Spruce  308 
Olive  180 
Orange  80 
Pecan  Nut  242 
Pin  Oak  250 
Pitch  Pine  304 
Post  Oak  249 
Red  Cedar  310 
Red  Mulberry  231 
Red  Oak  251,  252 
Rock  Maple  92,  93 
Rock  Oak  251 
Rosewood  109 
Sandal-wood  222 
Scarlet  Oak  248 
Scotch  Pine  304 
Shag-bark  242 
Shell-bark  242 
Silver-leaved  Oak  247 
Single-leaved  Nut-pine  301 


INDEX. 


349 


WoodB  —  I 

Southern  Pine  305  I 

Spanish  Oak  248  1 

Strychniuf  182 
Su^'ar  Maple                'J2,  93  I 
Swamp  Chestnut  Oak   25()  | 

Swiss  Pine  305 

Tamarind  110 

Teak  198 

Thick  Shell-bark  242 

Valonia  Oak  254 

White  Cedar  315 

White  Oak  24f; 

White  Pine  302 


Woods  — 

White  Spruce 

Yellow-barked  Oak 

Yellow  Pine 
Wrightia  tinctoria 
Wrinkled  Cabbage 


AM 


308 

248 

:i03 

47 


!  Yellow  Jute  14,  73,  74 

Yollow  Lentil  1(K) 

Yellow  Pine3«J2,  303,  305,  3(JG 
Yellow  Water  Crowfoot  36 
Yerba  Mat6  85-87 


28,  271,27'. 


Yellow  Banana 
Yellow-barked  Oak 
Yellow  Berries 
Yellow  Cinchona  Bark 


2C.5 

248 

.S7,  88 

157 


Z 


ANTE  Currants 


Zea  mays  29,  286-288 

Zingiber  officinalis      28,  264, 
26ii 
Zingiberaceae    10,  28,  260-268 
Zygophyllaceae      7,  15,  77,  78 


^^M.aiUiGEUBUtOL 


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THIS    BOOK   MAY    BE    KEPT    OUT 

TWO  WEEKS 

And  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  Five  Cents  a  day 

thereafter.     It  was  taken  out  on 

the  day  indicated  below  : 


